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The founding of the Talmud Torah in Sanok at the beginning of the 1920s had a great influence on the study of Torah in the city from a variety of perspectives. Until that time, the study of Torah was conducted among the children and youths in the manner that was common among Galician and Polish Jewry in general, and in small and mid-sized cities such as Sanok in particular. We must remember that aside from the old style “melamdim” (teachers) in the “cheders”, Sanok, like the rest of the cities of Galicia, did not know of any organized and consolidated study. Children of all ages were given over to the melamed without distinction and without great investigation into his quality, pedagogic ability, Torah knowledge, and personal character. It is obvious that there also was no supervision of the curriculum and teaching style, choice of study material, supervision of the attendance of the student or his academic progress, etc.

We can say that almost all of the melamdim in Sanok during that pre-Talmud Torah era were at the appropriate level and qualified with the appropriate credentials. Their level of knowledge was sufficient for them to fulfill the role of melamed as was required at that time. During the period between the two world wars, the number of official melamdim – both within the Talmud Torah and outside of it – reached more than 20. Among them we recognize some as being expert scholars. There were also some who were talented in other areas. Here is not the place to describe the personality of each one. We will discuss them in the appropriate place in this book. However, we cannot refrain here from mentioning the main characteristics of some of them. Reb Yitzchok (Itsha) Weill of blessed memory came to our city from the renowned Chatam Sofer Yeshiva of Pressberg (today Bratislava), as one of its choicest students. When serving as the teacher of the highest grade in the Talmud Torah, he utilized a unique and novel teaching style that was previously unknown to the youth of the Beis Midrashes of Sanok. This style was based on the exacting and in-depth study of the matter “in place”. That is: restricting the investigation to the actual Talmudic discussion, with the commentators, and early and late halachic decisors, and utilizing every opportunity to understand matters with their simplest interpretation.

The students of Reb Itsha Weill still remember the semester in which we studied the chapter of “Hasocher et Hapoel” in tractate Avoda Zarah. This six month semester, lasting the entire winter, was not sufficient to cover the subject, for at the end of the semester, we had not come to the end of that chapter of 15 folios. However, the quality of study was great. We had a large treasury of Torah innovations. These included truly novel ideas, deep and serious, as well as some sharp, bright flashes – momentary didactics that are a sort of dressing^[1] and marginal glosses^[2] that were made upon the Talmudic commentators rather than the Talmudic text itself. The fruitfulness of this semester brought forth the idea of putting the novellae^[3] into writing as an anthology (or composition, as we called it then) that would of course include the bounty of novellae of Reb Itsha Weill from his daily teaching. The responsibility for editing this anthology was given to several of the youthful students – those who displayed real interest in the matter. To the extent that my memory enables me to name them by name, we have with us here the poet and literary critic Azriel Ochmani (then Azriel Schwartz), the writer of these lines, and Yacov Weinfeld. The latter also was involved in the actual publication of the composition: that is, the editing of the material and writing it with his own handwriting on special paper and with special black ink that was obtained for this purpose from his father's printing shop and paper storehouse.

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The Talmud Torah building and its synagogue hall

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We were then about 13 years old, and if one of us still has a copy, it should be regarded as the first fruits of our literary creativity, at least from a chronological and lexicographical viewpoint.

In contrast to the teaching style of Reb Itsha Weill, and even in opposition to it, the teaching style of Reb Abisch Schickler of blessed memory (“The Rabbi from Wybranówka”) excelled in erudition^[4] and in navigating the vastness of the sea of Talmud and decisions as well as the use of opinions, “fences”, and reasoning in areas of Torah and Jewish law that were far off from the section that was being studied. Details on the personality of this great rabbi and scholar will be presented in the chapter dedicated to him in our book.

We will also mention here Reb Menasche Ader as a typical melamed and unique character. He deviated from the accepted style of teaching and study material. His uniqueness was displayed particularly with regard to the study of Bible^[5] and concern for grammar and linguistic theory as integral to the study of the meaning of the text. To this end, he did not hesitate to even use “modern” commentaries, such as the commentary of the Malbim^[6], or even ones that were so far “off limits” such as the “Biur” commentary of Moses the son of Menachem and his students^[7]. On account of this, he was given the title of Apikorus^[8] by the extremists.

We do not fulfill our obligation if we do not mention here the name of Reb Lemel Baruch, who was also a typical melamed. We will discuss him in the section dedicated to this topic in our book.

Similarly, it is proper to mention Reb Chaim Rothenberg (Polak) of blessed memory on account of his veteran status in the teaching profession – at first on a private basis and later as a class teacher in the Talmud Torah for the students who had already reached the level of the study of Gemara and Tosafot^[9]. As can be surmised, he surpassed all of the melamdim.

Aside from these choice melamdim with unique characteristics, including those whom I have mentioned here and those whom I have not, there were the standard teachers of tradition and scholarship. They would have continued on without any change or improvement were it not for one reason – a general external reason more than an internal contextual one – that aroused the need to search for improvements and changes from what had been accepted. I refer here to the need that was felt by a significant portion of the Jews of the city and the region to send the youths, both girls and boys, to government schools. There were those householders who were concerned about the state of Jewish Torah education due to what they knew from reading or hearsay about the “schools decree”^[10]. This occupied the minds of the activists and leaders in the cities and towns of Galicia to no small degree. Indeed, this issue affected the hearts of some of the householders personally, for they themselves were parents of children who studied in gentile schools, either with or without their agreement. Specifically, these were important people in town, from the upper classes of the population, even from the religious perspective. These included veteran religious and Torah activists.

There is no wonder that, from all the various perspectives, they saw the raising of the level of Torah and Jewish study as the only remedy to curb this situation. They felt that this must be done immediately and must be begun in the easiest possible fashion that was already accepted in many cities of Galicia, and did not involve any revolutionary ideas or the expenditure of large sums of money.

With the founding of the Talmud Torah, many things were achieved simultaneously:

1. The order of study was set by designating specific grades and appointing teachers whose own level of Torah knowledge was appropriate for teaching the grade. Students were divided into classes based on age, ability, etc. The curriculum was set – that is to say, the type of material or subject matter appropriate to the level of the classes. This began from the lowest grades who would study the alef beit, and then progress to prayer and Chumash and Rashi.

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Above them were the grades that already studied chapters of Talmud in the traditional style. Above them were the classes which studied Gemara with its commentators and Tosafot, progressing to the point where they would study the early and later commentators, and the study of the halachic decisors as a subject of its own. That is, the Code of Jewish law, Yoreh Deah section^[11] of the Shulchan Aruch (Code of Jewish Law), along with the didactical commentators of the later commentators such as the Kreiti Vepleiti, Shaagat Aryeh and others; as well as the Choshen Mishpat section of the Shulchan Aruch^[12] (especially the laws of claims and counterclaims, witnesses, and loans) along with the commentators such as the Ketzot Hachoshen, Urim Vetumim, etc.

2. Since excellent teachers were appointed to teach the classes in the Talmud Torah, the wealthy parents also decided to send their children there. Thereby, the revenue of the institution increased, which enabled it to accept students from poor families or those of modest means with the payment of reduced or zero tuition fees. It is clear that prior to the founding of the Talmud Torah, parents of that status were forced to send their children only to government schools, or in the best case, to send them to melamdim of low stature whose tuition fees were low, which of course expressed itself in the results of the education.
3. The organized and orderly study, with all the technical accessories and external protocols such as the supervision of the attendance of the students, the places of study, the following of the progress of the students, the administering of tests to the students at set times to test their knowledge of the material that was studied, the distribution of report cards, etc. – all of these resulted in an increase of interest in the studies, and there was a great deal of “jealousy of scribes”^[13] among the students as well as their parents. With the passage of time, Sanok became a city like other cities in which the study of Torah was prevalent. It took on an “essence” of the study of Torah. When the Gaon Rabbi Meier Schapira of blessed memory, who served as rabbi of the city from 1922-1925, founded a high level Yeshiva in Sanok (which was supposed to serve, and indeed did serve, as the seed for the Yeshiva Chachmei Lublin which was founded by him five years later), he was able to enlist dozens of youths who had been educated in the Talmud Torah and who had mastered broad Torah knowledge.

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The leadership of the Talmud Torah (known colloquially as the Vaad – the committee) was composed of activists who were chosen at a general meeting. Apparently, their election was conducted by using the list of candidates who were presented to the general meeting with prior consent and approval of the powers in the various synagogues in the city neighborhoods. We still recall the names of the members of the communal council, at least some of them who we saw during their widespread activity on behalf of the Talmud Torah. We also remember the places of their residence, and the synagogues in which they regularly worshipped. There was Reb Eliezer Schechter, a regular worshipper of the central Beis Midrash; Reb Yosef Traum, an old-timer of the Sanz Kloiz; Reb Yitzchok Schnitzler, who had a seat at the eastern wall of the Sadagora Kloiz; and others. The common denominator of all of them was their dedication and faithfulness to the matter of the study of Torah and the education of the generation in the style of faithful Judaism. It is clear that all of their work was not for the sake of reward. On the contrary, there is no doubt that none of them hesitated in bearing the burden of monthly fees as a householder in this city, as they bore the burdens of other financial obligations to the benefit of the Jewish community of the city. We can surmise without doubt that they even had “opportunities” on occasion to cover from their own private pockets some sort of “hole” in the financial budget, or some necessary expenditure that had to be undertaken despite there not being one coin in the coffers of the Talmud Torah. Situations of this type were not infrequent…

Aside from the elected activists who served officially as directors of the committee, that is to say, the regular trustees of the Talmud Torah, there were several people of the city who offered their assistance in matters relating to the Talmud Torah in various manners, and at any time there was a need for their help. One of the jobs of these supporters was to examine the students in the upper grades during the final weeks of the semester. These examinations, which lasted for several weeks, generally took place during Sabbath afternoons. The examiners were invited at a specific time to examine some of the students from a specific grade on specific material. The students were notified of this in advance so that had time to prepare. The level of preparation, or even the need for any preparation at all, was judged by the level of the material and the degree of strictness of the examiner. It should be noted here that, at times, such an examination was an important event, joyous and encouraging for both the student and the examiner. For among the examiners, who generally consisted of sharp and expert scholars, there were those who were able to enter the student under examination into a give and take discussion on the subject matter, and to continue it to the point where the student gave his own novel ideas that he had thought of previously, or insights that he had just thought of on the spur of the moment, during the examinations. These occurrences, accompanied by encouragement and friendly relations from the examiner, would brighten up and bring joy and satisfaction to the student. Reb Eliezer Bremer of blessed memory, the teacher and head of the rabbinical court; Rabbi Eliezer Sprung of blessed memory; Rabbi Moshe Moritz of blessed memory; Reb Alter Meier of blessed memory; Reb Yitzchok Granik and Reb Simcha Mund – the latter two who live with us today here, may they live long, were among these examiners.

I was often fortunate to have been examined by the aforementioned examiners, and I still recall the satisfaction and contentment that I received from these examinations. Indeed, I will never forget the moments of enjoyment and sublimity that I felt on one occasion when I was examined in this manner by Reb Moshe Kanner of blessed memory. He was an expert scholar and enchanting personality, and the feeling and recognition of with whom and before whom I was sitting never left me for even one moment during the examination and the conversation that it entailed.

A recognizable, albeit not large, change in the Talmud Torah, at least in the administrative realm, took place at the time of the visit to our city by Mr. Jonas, a Sanok native who lived in America, and who was a wealthy philanthropist. With the influence of the activists of the city, and as was told then, also with the influence of his brother Mr. Tzvi Jonas, this philanthropist opened up his hand and heart to the various needs of the Jewish population of Sanok, and donated generously to private, individual causes as well as to the Jewish institutions of Sanok, so that they could be maintained and improved.

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Members of the committee and leadership of the Talmud Torah on the occasion of the visit of the philanthropist Mr. Max Jonas to Sanok in the year 5685 Sitting from right to left: Reb Moshe Moritz, the rabbi and head of the rabbinical court Reb Eliezer Bremer, ?, Reb Yaakov Graber, Reb Yosef Traum, Mr. Max Jonas, Dr. Shlomo Roemer, Reb Tzvi Jonas, Reb Shalom Salik, Reb Tzvi Amsel. Standing from right to left: Reb Yitzchok Schnitzler, ?, ?, Reb Petachia Miller, Reb Tzvi-David Wilner, Reb Tzvi Schwartz, Reb Yitzchok Gurfein, Reb Yosef Springer, ?, Reb Yisrael Trattner.

(Translator's note, the date on the photo is July 22, 1925, and the photographer's name is Gottdank.)

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Among these, the Talmud Torah benefited from an important donation that was intended to provide for a building which would house all the classes, the offices, and especially a large, splendid hall that served first and foremost as a regular synagogue for a large congregation that would bring in significant fixed income. Aside from that, it would serve as a venue for all types of parties and festivities for a fee – something which was missing and the need of which was felt in our town. This would guarantee proper financial income at all times of the year.

A splendid three story building was erected in the center of the city, at the western edge of the Rynek (city square) on a plot of land that was purchased. It served as a central place for the Jews of the city, who took pride and were blessed through it. It began to fulfill all of its roles and to actualize the intentions that were instilled in it. To our dismay, the building did not last, and we did not succeed in continuing the development and maintenance of the Talmud Torah building. It met the same fate as all of the synagogues and gathering places in the city, which were burned and destroyed along with all of their Torah scrolls. The reader will find more extensive details on this matter in the appropriate chapter of our book.

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Translator's Footnotes

1. The term 'dressing' refers to non-essential, brief interpretations, as opposed to critical interpretations covering the main body of the text. return
2. The word novella (pl novellae) is an actual translation of a Jewish concept called a 'chidush' 'chidushim', which refers to a rabbinical essay which innovates a new Torah thought. return
3. A 'gloss' or 'marginal gloss' – in many rabbinical texts, including the Talmud, there are many brief commentators in the margin that provide brief elucidation of the text without going into depth. These are often referred to in English as glosses, or 'marginal glosses' to stress that they occur in the margin. return
4. The Hebrew term 'bekiut', when used to describe a learning style, implies more than erudition. It implies a choice of breadth (covering large amounts of material) over depth. return
5. In traditional Jewish cheders of yore (and even today in many Orthodox circles), Bible study (aside from the five books of the Torah) was minimized, and the study of Jewish Law, Mishnah, and Talmud was maximized. return
6. A well-known traditional Bible Commentator from the 1800s. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malbim. return
7. This is the commentary of Moses Mendelssohn. return
8. Apikoros (Epicurian) is the term used for a Jewish heretic. return
9. Tosafot (literally additions), is a compendium of primary Talmudic commentaries that is published directly on the Talmudic folios. return
10. A decree from the Austrian Hungarian Empire that all Jews must be educated in government schools. return
11. The Yoreh Deah section of the Code of Jewish Law (Shulchan Aruch) deals with the laws of forbidden and permitted foods, idol worship, and various other areas of Jewish law. return
12. The Choshen Mishpat section of the Code of Jewish Law (Shulchan Aruch) deals with tortes, jurisprudence, etc. return
13. A term denoting interest in academia. return
14. A Mi Sheberach is a formula for wishing success and wellbeing to a person who had received a Torah honor (aliya) in the synagogue. In some communities, this occasion was used to pledge money to charity, in which case the Mi Sheberach formula would be enhanced. return

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This yeshiva left no trace behind. No memories were written about it; no news came from it; and no information is available about it. We did not even hear anything about its official name, and we have not even heard anything about its existence in our city.

Despite this, it is clear that such a yeshiva existed, and its official name was “Tomchin D'Orayta” (Supporters of Torah). Indeed, we have not found any special historical note or chronological–biographical account that could provide any details about it. However, we have found some testimony, that is especially reliable for us and that can be seen as authoritative as it was presented in an incidental fashion. During the course of our work on the book, we came across a book whose author was a Rosh yeshiva [yeshiva Head], or as he called himself a “teacher” in that yeshiva. The essence of the book has no actual relevance to our topic. The author of the book does not get right down to concrete matters, but rather begins with a preface that is written in a fashion to serve both as a preface and as a statement of authority. The book includes a long exegesis that has no connection to our city of Sanok or any other city. The name of our city Sanok, or any other city for that matter, is not mentioned at all in the book. However, one can see from the preface of the book that a yeshiva did indeed exist in Sanok, apparently for older students. It was founded by “the communal heads and notables, headed by the honorable and holy rabbi and Gaon Natan Nota Dym of holy blessed memory.” It is unfortunate that we have no other material from which we can deduce any other details, facts, and dates about this yeshiva, which was in its time one of the unique and rare ones throughout all of Galicia. However, the information we found was presented in an incidental fashion – that is, without any historical or research purpose. Our book has no pretence of being a work of historical research. In our Yizkor Book, we do not deal with research. The lines that we have written about this are primarily citations from the preface of that book. That is to say, the words are few and brief. Nevertheless, and because of this, we have found it appropriate to include a photocopy of the preface of this book for our readers. Perhaps it will provide the elders from among our readers with a larger opening

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that could lead to more comprehensive facts. Perhaps this preface will lead historians toward greater achievements in this manner, and perhaps they will find something that we did not.

Photocopy page 65: The preface page of the book that mentions the yeshiva of Rabbi Dym in Sanok

With the help of G–d Zichron Olam Based on the legends of our sages of blessed memory on Tractate Taanit folio 20. This is one of the exegeses that I have put into writing through the great mercy of the sublime G–d. Elazar the son of Dov HaLevi known as Asatanowicz Who was known as a “teacher” in the yeshiva Tomchin D'Orayta that was founded in the city of Sanok by the heads and notables of the community, headed by the Rabbi and Gaon, etc. with the honor of his name, Rabbi Natan Nota Dym of holy blessed memory. For several years, he taught chumash with various commentators and mishna every day to an attentive group. Then he was accepted as a lecturer in the community of Neiutarg, having been given this post by the rabbi and Gaon Rabbi Chaim Baruch Strauch of holy blessed memory. Presently he lives in his native city of Lublin, teaching mishna and gemara to a group of attentive comrades every Sabbath as well as on weekdays. Published by Reb Ozer Zwekin, may he live Lublin Lubartowska 62 5684 / 1934 Wyd. L. Asatanowicz Lublin Lubartowsko 22 m 23 Printed in Poland Druk M. Sznajdermessers, Lublin.

There was no private or even a factional motivation in the founding of this school – aside from the sole sublime aim of imparting the knowledge of the Hebrew language and literature to the young generation. The school fulfilled this role in the fullest sense. This school was founded in 1908, and the lion's share of the study and dissemination of the Hebrew language in our city can be attributed to it. The achievements in the arena of Hebrew – the study and acquisition of the Hebrew language, the dissemination of Hebrew literature, and the promotion of the speaking of Hebrew amongst the youth – all came through the primary or secondary influence of this school, for many of the Hebrew teachers and activists in the Hebrew movement in Sanok were raised in this school and were graduates of the various classes.

The school was located in the home of Mr. Berisch Fink on Kosciuszko Street. There were four classrooms. The pedagogue Reb Tzvi Abt of blessed memory headed the school. He succeeded in attracting many

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students from among the studying youth. Aside from teaching the language, the school served as a meeting place for the older Zionist youth, for lectures on matters of culture, friendly discussions, and an exchange of ideas on various topics.

The prominent powers who particularly excelled in the knowledge of Hebrew; the daily use of Hebrew in speaking, writing, and reading; and in disseminating Hebrew in the city were seen in two camps of the youth who were actually extremely distant from one another. On the one side, there was the religious youth, primarily the members of Hamizrachi, Hapoel Hamizrachi, and Hashomer Hadati, who mainly included youths who were studying in Beis Midrashes and for whom Hebrew was generally the first language of their daily education (studying in cheders, with prayer three times a day, etc.) On the other side, there was Hashomer Hatzair, for which education and the use of Hebrew was successfully stressed as one of the strong principles and aims of the organization. Indeed, the school served both groups as a forging ground for the actualization of Hebrew in a practical sense for use within the factional life, through the giving of courses in the headquarters of the parties, in discussions, in celebrations, performances, wall newspapers, and the like. A Hebrew Corner, which was some sort of Hebrew club, existed under the auspices of the Mizrachi organization. They got together from time to time for interest evenings, lectures and debates on various topics, all conducted in pure Hebrew.

From among the teachers of the school, we should note Tzvi Abt, Sonia Bein, Shlomi Bikel, Menachem Wenig, Batya Leiser, Elazar Mandel, Marmorstein, Gedalia Karsh, and Shalom Sprung.

It is appropriate to note that our activists knew already at that time how to concern themselves with the establishment of a group of children as a preparatory group for studying in school. Among us are some female natives of Sanok who point out, not without a semblance of pride, that they are among those who “studied” in the Hebrew “kindergarten” in Sanok in those days…

Photo page 66: The highest class in the Safa Berura Hebrew School. The teacher Shalom Sprung is in the middle of the center row.

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Photo page 67 top: The choir of the Hebrew School

Photocopy page 67 bottom: A report card of the Safa Berura Hebrew School of Sanok. Note: the name on the report card is Rachel Silber.

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Immediately after the conclusion of the First World War and the with the beginning of the renewal of Jewish life in the city, the Agudat Mizrachi in Sanok founded a modern religious school, that is, a Talmud Torah which used a new teaching style. The educational director of this school was Mr. Avraham Lowen, who lives with us here today, may he live long! He himself wrote booklets on the teaching of Mishna based on selected chapters, and not on the order of the Mishna. The curriculum was relatively rich for the time. The language of instruction was Yiddish but the curriculum included the study of the Hebrew language, and the “Hebrew in Hebrew” teaching style was utilized. The writer of these lines was fortunate to participate, and to be accepted as a teacher of Hebrew in that educational institution. Reb Yitzchok Messer of blessed memory was among the teachers. He died in exile in Siberia during the Second World War. He taught Bible and Jewish law while Mr. A. Levin taught Talmud, Mishna, and other subjects. The school was housed on the first floor of the Yad Charutzim hall. Many students streamed in to study in that school. The lessons were frontal: the teacher lectured from a stage as was the custom in government schools of those days. We obtained appropriate furnishings and equipment for the school, and we attempted to set up its external appearance to match that of the government schools. This school was very successful. Its graduates include several people who are with us today in the Land, including Azriel Ochmani, Yechiel Kiehl, my son Reb Shmerel Bergenbaum, and others.*

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* Note: there is a footnote in the text here as follows: The reader can find additional details in the announcement that was published in Yom Tov Blatt (page 2, row 3, under the heading #147;Schools”) by the school, published in Sanok on the eve of Rosh Hashanah 5680 (1920). A photocopy of its two pages is included later in the appropriate place in our book (pages 205-206)

The school of the Mizrachi, affiliated with the Yavneh Center in Warsaw, was established during the first half of the 1920s. As the number of students and teachers grew, we expanded the school, and rented a number of rooms in the home of Mr. D. Taubenfeld. The school was known in the city as having a high educational level from all perspectives. I remember that before the end of the school year, we conducted a public exam for the students of the school, to which we invited members of the parents committee and city notables. The exam left a great impression on those present. The exams were conducted by presenting questions in closed envelopes. In the basket, there were as many envelopes as students. The student whose name was called came up to the podium, placed his hand in the basket, removed a closed enveloped, and gave it to the chief examiner, who opened it and read out the questions to the student. The student had to answer twelve questions that covered all subjects of the curriculum, two for each subject.

The subjects that were taught included prayer, laws, Torah with the commentary of Rashi, Talmud, Jewish History, and Hebrew. One student pulled out an envelope that included, among the other questions, a question to detail the thirteen methods of Torah exegesis as explained in the Baraita of Rabbi Yishmael^[1]. He answered with full correctness, to the joy and surprise of all present. It is known that not every Jew, even an erudite one, knows how to explain the Baraita of Rabbi Yishmael appropriately even if he studied and reviewed it with great diligence.

During the latter era, the idea arose of setting up a school for all subjects taught in government schools, patterned after schools that had already started in large cities. For various reasons, this plan never came to fruition.

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Translator's Footnotes

1. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baraita_of_Rabbi_Ishmael return

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Founded by the rabbi and gaon Rabbi Meir Shapiro of blessed memory, the head of the rabbinical court of Sanok. (sections of memories).

We youths who studied in the Beis Midrash or gymnasium, members of factional parties and working youth, only learned about the yeshiva after it was already founded and studies had already begun. Before that, no details, deliberations, or debates at public gatherings or meetings between the rabbi and the communal activists who were close to him were shared externally. Certain preparations were undertaken to carry out the plans of the rabbi to establish a yeshiva in our city, but we knew nothing or heard nothing about them.

However, echoes of the first speech of the rabbi regarding the founding of a yeshiva in the city, as he was installed as the rabbi of the city in a festive manner, still echoed through the atmosphere of the city. The words of promise and foreshadowing, as if a declaration of a program, still rang in the ears of all of us. He focused his activities toward the dissemination of Torah in Sanok. As he expressed it then, he intended to turn Sanok into a Yavneh (of Rabbi Yochanan the son of Zakkai)^[1], a center of study and dissemination of Torah. However, we thought then that all of this was merely a desire and a wish, and an early actualization seemed premature to us. Therefore the rapid actualization of the aspiration that became reality only a very short time after he arrived surprised and even enchanted and attracted us. It enchanted all of us, even those youths who never made the Torah into their occupation, and whose study of the holy books was not constant. It attracted all of us, even those who studied in the Beis Midrash and “slept in the tents of Torah.” Both groups knew of the greatness of the rabbi in Torah, and trusted that any lecture of his on gemara – even on a “light” tractate such as Berachot or with an “easy” commentary such as the Ro'sh – would be filled with novel Torah ideas that had not been heard previously. Both groups were also enchanted by the appearance of several students of the rabbi from his yeshiva in Galina [Hlyniani], the city where he had served previously, including Reb Shlomo Shikler, Rwv Leizer Nagorul, and especially Reb Shimshon Fogelman. All of them were great scholars, of course, in a methodology of study that was new to us and different than that which we were used to. The methodology of learning involving great breadth, the methodology of a Sinai^[2], was different from that which we had been accustomed to, which was a method that stressed depth, the “uprooting of mountains.” Both groups were also enchanted by the chant of the study, which was a different gemara chant with a new ring. It was in the minor key, as opposed to our chant in the major key that we knew and had heard but did not use for our studies, and that was similar to the cantorial theme used by the cantors and preachers from Poland and Russia who would visit our city. They would include sections of gemara set to a tune as a number in their repertoire, but we never thought of using it in our own studies. This new melody brought to us by these yeshiva students was very acceptable to all of us. We absorbed it, with all of its variances and nuances, with all of its creases and stresses. The new “voice” of Torah began to be sung in the city in an increasing fashion, as

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the numbers of new students from all the far–off places in Poland increased. Studying quickly became an area for musical expression, a form of studying by opportunity, of “learn by heart, and let it be like a song”^[3], in the most positive interpretation of this Talmudic expression.

All of this was at the beginning of the era of the founding of the yeshiva; to the events and happenings regarding this yeshiva in our city; to the causes of the enchantment and the attractiveness of the yeshiva, and the interest taken in it; to the stream of youths of the city and the region who joined the actual studies in the yeshiva; and primarily, to the impressions of the broader community in general and the awakening and soulful feelings of the youths in particular, to the point of acceptance in the yeshiva – to the point of, but not actually. For the story of the life of the yeshiva, the experience of the yeshiva, and the experience of the students within the yeshiva is a completely different story, no less than the preceding story, and no less than the interest taken in it. This is regarding the time of the class given by the rabbi himself or by his student Reb Shimon Fogelman or others, or the time before or after a class – that is between classes.

We will first of all point out the essence of the study and the study material. There was a great innovation in the choice of material for the daily class that was delivered in front of hundreds of students of all types and ages. The innovation was surprising both in essence and in action. At first, they studied the tractate of Berachot^[4] that deals with the laws of reciting the Shema, the daily prayers, exemptions of a mourner of reciting prayers, blessings to be recited at places where miracles took place, and sections of lore that are generally studied by elderly Jews in Ein Yaakov^[5]. Those sections of Talmud in that tractate have the clearest and simplest commentary from the Ro'sh and are lacking in any pilpul [didactics]. All of this made the study more interesting, with a practical bent. Now a feeling of awakening and encouragement ensued! There was a pleasant presentation of fine things, of a sweet and calm voice – and all of this was accompanied by amazing novel ideas in Torah, of sharp flashes of light, of deep questions, of contradictions, or the opposite, of surprisingly satisfying resolution of deep questions, or at times of sharp words, sprouts and flowers, jokes that hit the mark – jumping from matter to matter, and even moving off the topic…

As surprising as was the study of the easy tractate of Berachot, which at least deals with practical issues in the day to day life of every Jewish person and his relationship with his Creator –– there was a later surprise in the study of a remote and obscure tractate such as Mikvaot^[6] with the commentary of the Ra'sh – an area of study that was not included at all in the curriculum of study of the Jews of Galicia – neither for the young students or the elderly scholars, even the greatest of them. To our great amazement, there were novel ideas and sharp points made even here. Furthermore, there were comparisons and examples taken from far off places in the realm of Torah, and identifications of various Talmudic sages in disparate parts of Jewish law where they might have been incidental, based on their style in the different places that they appear. When such matters emanate from a mouth that gives forth pearls, and pour forth with their sweetness in a calm spirit and with the benefit of reaching their mark – they are most definitely enlightening, encouraging, joyous and causing of joy.

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Indeed, a large crowd of hundreds of yeshiva students, young and old, veterans and newcomers, would sit in the women's gallery of the Sadagora Kloiz. It was very crowded despite the fact that it was the largest hall available for this purpose. When the benches were filled, people would sit on the windowsills. They would “sit standing” or “stand sitting.” Nobody would forgo this class because it was too crowded. Rather, they continued to sit and soak up the words of the class with great attention. The class later served as a background for halachic debates between the students – until the next class on the following day…

The times between classes was also part of the special and full yeshiva experience. The rabbi himself contributed greatly to this, through his conduct, concern with matters of the yeshiva, as well as his relationship with the students even outside the class time. This primarily took place around the table on the Sabbath and festival meals. Aside from words of Torah, with the novel and sharp ideas that were not missing there as well, the musical talents, both known and unknown, of various students found their expression. Through his love of the joy, singing, and hymns, the rabbi paid great attention to the students who knew how to sing, and made sure to encourage their musical talent. He did not hide his own talent. His melodies for sections of the prayers on weekdays, Sabbaths, and festivals (including the blessing for the Counting of the Omer, and others) are still known, as are his melodies for the various Sabbath and festival hymns. These included joyous dance tunes or choral melodies (such as for Ya Ribon Alam^[7]), or songs of emotional outpouring that some believe were composed by himself. As well, the echoes of the tunes of the hums of some of the students still echo in our ears, such as the cantorial–responsive melody of the student Tzvi Shertzer (or Sherz) of Brzozów for a section of “Veal Yedey Avadeicha,” or the lovely lyric melody attributed to Reb Monish, a cantor of the Ruzhin dynasty, for the hymn “Kel Mistater” that was sung in good taste and fine melody by the student Moshe Dorlich of Dobromyl. There were many others, with the common factor being that they could be learned and mastered within a short time, and they became constant numbers in the musical repertoire of the meals with the rabbi or of groups of students in their places of residence.

The tune of the hymn “Ein Adir,” sung by the rabbi to the tune of the cantor of the city Reb David Zuckerman, reached great fame and acclaim. This hymn was adopted as the “yeshiva hymn” at the request of the rabbi, and was sung at various occasions by the composer accompanied by his synagogue choir. It did not take long for this hymn to “conquer” the yeshiva youths and even penetrate into the Hasidic houses of worship in the city. It was used frequently by prayer leaders for appropriate sections of the service.

Only a small amount out of the large amount of information has been said about this. Only a small portion remains in the memory and is etched in the heart, that can still be written on paper. We are speaking here of only a relatively brief period, at the beginning of the establishment

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of the yeshiva, during its first stages of existence. To be exact – we have only discussed the period of the rabbi's tenure in our city. When he left the city, as he was appointed as a rabbi in Piotrków and later Lublin, he continued and even increased his efforts to establish a yeshiva that would serve as a world center, yeshivat Chachmei Lublin in Lublin. He made his first plowing and even his first planting in Sanok, which did grow a fine sprout. The first sprout that formed the primary kernel strengthened and grew fruitful, turning into a large tree of yeshivat Chachmei Lublin that was established in Lublin, as we later saw it in its splendid consolidation. Here in our city, the sprout remained in its early sprouting. The continuation of its growth took place there in Lublin. There, the aspirations of the rabbi were fulfilled completely, and there, the internal consolidation began. There, its established and healthy foundational atmosphere was forged, and its specific essence was forged. Several of the students of Sanok went on to continue their yeshiva life there. We heard about the wonderful progress of several of them there. We even found out about the personal advancement of some of those who started out in Sanok as they advanced to high achievements of rabbinical ordination and communal leadership (Reuven Weitzman, Aharon Leibwahl, and others). Were we to merit, they would have reached, with their talents, to the highest levels of leadership in Polish Jewry.

If only we were to have merited…!

Photocopy page 72: the Hymn of the Bnei Torah yeshiva of Sanok

_________

Translator's Footnotes

1. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yavne and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johanan_ben_Zakai return
2. A Sinai approach refers to an approach of Torah study that stresses breadth at the sacrifice of depth, as opposed to an “uprooter of mountains” approach that stresses depth and didactics over breadth. return
3. Tractate Eruvin 60:a. return
4. Berachot is known as an easy tractate, and is not often studied in depth in yeshivas. return
5. An anthology of the sections of Talmud that deal with lore as opposed to legalism. return
6. Dealing with the construction and requirements of the mikva [ritual bath]. return
7. A hymn sung at the Sabbath meals. See http://www.zemirotdatabase.org/view_song.php?id=56 return

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We cannot establish who of our townsfolk were the leaders in the founding of this educational institution, just as we do not know whether the establishment came from efforts within our city or from the upper leadership of this school network, which was on an upswing during the 1930s, and especially during the latter half of that decade. It is therefore possible that the impetus for the founding of the Beis Yaakov School stemmed from it.

In any case, we must note that the few activists who participated in the establishment of this school were also small with regard to the communal backbone of our city. This was from an organizational–factional perspective as well as from a material–financial perspective. It is assumed that the financial backing for this aim was not bountiful during those days, which were the beginning days of the communal organization of the Orthodox community. It did not come from the internal sources of its members or from the upper leadership of the party. Therefore, it was only due to the enthusiasm of those few people and their dedication to religious education of girls of religious parents and families who were not affiliated with the religious nationalist (i.e. Mizrachi) community whose efforts were already well developed by then through the Yavneh School in our city, as in all other cities of Poland and Galicia. Only those, with their meager powers, worked in that area with their warm enthusiasm. They toiled and succeeded. Already in the first era of its existence, signs of its development and progress were noted. To our sorrow, the hand of destruction also overtook that institution while it was in the midst of its development in numbers and essence.

We will mention here the names of some of the few people who we remember, at least, as activists of this institution from its inception, and who concerned themselves with its fate throughout its period of existence and development. These include Mrs. Babad, Reb Yisrael–Shlomo Berger, Mrs. Dorlich, Reb Shaul Wasserthal, and Reb Moshe Moritz. We have forgotten the rest of them, who were their enthusiastic comrades in the activity, but their merit shall stand with them as those who participated with the faithful and dedicated concern for religious education of the girls of our city.

Photo page 73: Uncaptioned. Student and teachers of the Beis Yaakov School.

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It is unfortunate that the book does not even include statistical facts about the variegated Jewish population of our town – a form of communal ledger from which it would be possible to glean informational facts about our native town where we spent the best years of our youth. Since we do not possess historical material and data that would be sufficient for the compilation of a monograph on the Jewish youth of Sanok between the two world wars, which we could use for obtaining memoirs related to this topic, I hope that my memory will serve me correctly.

It is possible to state with a large degree of certainty that the vast majority of the Jewish youth were under the influence of the various Zionist organizations, and that the pioneering movements of Hashomer Hatzair, Gordonia, Hanoar Hatzioni, and Akiva encompassed most of them. The religious youth were for the most part under the influence of the religious organizations of the Zionist movement, Mizrachi and HaPoel Hamizrachi. Later on, Beitar youth movements arose. The Bund was barely noticeable in the life of the city. The Communist Party began to operate during the 1930s among the Jewish youth, not without success, even though it was difficult for it to assert its power from the underground.

This time I wish to present a bundle of memories that will demonstrate the successful influence of the pioneering youth movements upon their charges.

Already during my early childhood, when I was 11 or 12 years old, the group of youngsters in my neighborhood did not satisfy me, and I began to accompany my elder brother Shmuel Zeinwil of blessed memory, who was a member of the Hechalutz in the group of Moshe Messer of blessed memory. We would gather together in the Optekara primarily on Sabbaths, sit in a semicircle and listen to him speak about the persecution of the Jews of Poland, Hashomer in the Land, and other such things. The noble face of the educator who spoke words that came from the heart and penetrated the heart of his young charges instilled also in me a sense of connectedness to this group. I wished to join their ranks with all my heart, even though a large age gap separated me from them. The late Shmuel Zeinwil did not wish to bring me into the pioneering movement too early, even though he himself was an enthusiastic follower of it. I would therefore come in stealth,

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hide behind the trees and absorb the words of the group leader with thirst. I was also an admirer of my elder brother who, with time, accepted upon himself the task of leading a group of Stam-Chalutz, and was already a member of the leadership of the chapter. Later he became the secretary of the local leadership of Hashomer Hatzair in Sanok.

When I reached the age of Bar Mitzvah and was still studying Gemara with Reb Chaim Rothenberg – the Gemara teacher of the Talmud Torah, who for some reason was called Chaim Polk by everyone – I would often glance into the Hashomer Hatzair hall and continue making efforts to be accepted as a member of the Aryeh educational group which was lead by Mondek Poritz, who was revered by all of his charges, including me. My desire was granted to me. As I was standing at the crossroads after concluding my course of studies in the elementary school and the cheder, Shmuel Zeinwil exerted pressure to permit me to continue my studies in the gymnasium. The teachers in the Talmud Torah recommended that I continue my studies in a Yeshiva, but my father of blessed memory wanted

Photo page 75: The building of the boys' gymnasium

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me to follow the path of my other brothers and study the tailoring trade, the profession of my father of blessed memory, which assures a livelihood to its practitioners.

I studied for my entrance examination to the gymnasium and decided on my studies, but I did not forego the movement. On the contrary, I increased my efforts in the activities of the students, and I joined myself with the ideals that had always been my guiding light. I divided my time between school, giving lessons to failing students (for I had to pay tuition and purchase books), and my friends in the local Hashomer Hatzair chapter. I do not know how, but it is a fact that despite the time pressures, I succeeded in all of these many activities and did not sit idly at any of these endeavors, as did many of the active youth who were educated in the group with me.

I will now relate one incident that is etched in my memory. We were in the sixth or seventh grade. On Sabbaths we went out to activities outside the city, and spent our time in group discussions, group activities or just passing time in the area of the quarry next to Trepcza. We conducted a scouting parade with full Shomrim dress on festivals and national celebrations.

Membership in the movement was illegal in Poland. Furthermore, when Hashomer Hatzair was considered by the authorities of being associated with Communism, it was difficult to keep a secret in town. However, since the connections between us and the gentiles were quite restricted, we somehow succeeded in evading the situation, and continuing our active membership in the movement even while we were within the walls of the high school.

A period of ferment among the youth ensued. The competition for the soul of the Jewish youth was great. Hashomer Hatzair, with its splendid educational tradition, was not the only one on the Jewish street, and it was a long time from the days when the General Zionists would spread their protection over the movement and encircle it with love. An era of scheming began toward the left leaning movement, and there was no shortage of slander to the authorities. There were break-ins to the chapter headquarters, as well as destructive acts such as the breaking of the doors of the bookcase, the tearing of books, and the like.

One day, we, members of the chapter, were called one by one into the principal's office in the middle of class. The principal took out a photograph of a scouting event in the quarry and asked us to explain the uniform. We maintained our innocence. Our answer was (at recess, we discussed what to say), that on Lag Baomer Jewish youth would go out to enjoy ourselves in the bosom of nature, and we had done the same. We thereby evaded a debate with the principal, but the episode did not end with this. The issue was brought to a meeting of the teachers for adjudication. The principal of the gymnasium (Director Grosla) demanded our expulsion from the school. Yosef Apel, the teacher of Jewish religion, intervened in our favor. He pointed out that we were excellent students and declared our innocence, stating that we were not members in any illegal youth movement. Father Wanat, who taught religion to the Christians and was generally not known to have anti-Semitic leanings, displayed a cruel spirit at this time. He claimed that his colleague should be believed, but wished to warn us severely that we should not be so brazen as to forge relations with any organization outside of the walls of the school. If we did not accept this, we would be expelled from the gymnasium.

Professor Apel called me for a private discussion. He told me about the proceedings of the meeting and demanded that I leave the movement, or at least cease all activities in it, for his personal honor was vested in this matter. He also requested that I instruct the rest of the members to follow in my footsteps. My situation was very serious. I understood the spirit of Professor

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Apel, who was good and meant well. I thought about the matter and answered him very politely. Of course I thanked him for his intercession in our favor. I also appreciated his demand on us, based on his desire to protect our chances of remaining within the gymnasium until after the matriculation examinations. However, at the end of the matter, I was unable to deal falsely with my soul. I responded to him that I would continue to be active in the movement even though the matter was fraught with danger. (At that time there was a hunt against Communists, and Jewish students had been imprisoned. As has been mentioned, we were suspected of being Communist supporters.) I read the eyes of the goodhearted Professor Apel, noting his disappointment about my answer. I did not change my mind, however, and I continued with my activities, along with my friends, with greater energy. When we were in the upper grades, we were asked to perform tasks of greater responsibility.

I still recall an episode related to this. There was great ferment among the youth in the upper grades of the gymnasium at that time. During that time, the 1930s, there was unemployment in the country, and the matters often reached the point of a difficult struggle among the unemployed workers (from the Jalniwski Factory) and the police and the army. The authorities vigilantly followed the political activities of the workers' organizations, and especially the Communist Party which was persecuted with great severity. The teachers hinted, each according to his way and his spirit, about my membership in an underground organization. The Latin teacher Klimk mockingly nicknamed me “Rabbi Akiva”. Birnacki, the teacher of Polonistics, told the class publicly that the teaching staff knew that I belonged to a Zionist organization. Dr. Bzaluk, a Ukrainian nationalist with whom I enjoyed particularly close relations, once talked to me at length outside of school and asked me what I intended to do after my matriculation examinations. I answered him openly and honestly. The conversation was pleasant, and the smile on his face could only mean that he understood that this was a confirmation of information that he already knew. He even expressed his concurrence with my plan. I did not suspect that he would use my words for ill purposes. On the contrary, I felt that he would keep the matter secret – and I was not mistaken. Nobody again came to dispute our status within the school. We took our matriculation examinations without our activities in the movement having any effect at all.

Photo page 77: A class in the girls' gymnasium

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The following is a list of Jewish graduates that was prepared based on the aforementioned list, and covers the years 1888-1939. It is possible that there may be some scattered errors due to lack of clarity of the names. Therefore, we would be happy if the reader rectifies this. A girls' gymnasium was established in Sanok during the 1930s, and they are included in this list to the extent that they took their matriculation examinations in the boys' gymnasium. For each year, we note the percentage of Jewish students from among the total of those who received their matriculation.

At the end, we include a list of Jewish teachers. It is clear that they comprised a very small percentage, for we only find 10 Jews among the 339 teachers that taught during the 70 years of the existence of the school! The majority of the Jewish students came from the cities of Galicia, or after the First World War from Poland, and were not local.

1887/8: 1. Moshe Bodenheimer 2. Zelig Pessel 3. Yacov Golomb 4. Markus Spindler – 14.8% out of 21.

1888/9: 1. Berel Herzig 2. Shmuel Nebenzahl 3. Yehoshua Szefer – 12.9% out of 23.

1889/90: 1. – – – – – – – – – – – – (18).

1890/91: 1. Yechezkel Schmindling 2. Eliahu Szkrumida 3. Bernard Fristendig 4. Hirsch Zagenhauser – 11.6% out of 31.

1891/2: 1. Yehoshua Ginzberg 2. Yosef Meng (?) 3. Shlomo Romer – 11.5% out of 26.

1892/3: 1. Yosef Herzig – 6.6% out of 15.

1893/4: 1. – – – – – – – – – – – – (10).

1894/5: 1. Isaac Eisner 2. Yosef Loeffel 3. Moshe Schaeffer – 18.75% out of 16.

1895/6: 1. Maximilian Babat (?) 2. Leon Drohobycz 3. Sender Karp – 11% out of 29.

1896/7: 1. Avraham Adelsberg 2. Nachum Aszkenazy 3. Herman Atlas 4. Yitzchak Pojer 5. Yosef Filenbaum 6. Mauritz Schmindling – 19.36% out of 31.

1897/8: 1. Ephraim Alexanderwicz 2. Leib Anderman 3. Nessandel Bernfeld 4. Shmuel Herzig 5. David Horowitz 6. Eliahu Dines – 14.63% out of 41.

1898/9: 1. Adolf Birnbaum 2. Eliahu Eisner 3. Heinrik Greenhaut 4. Isadore Lindenbaum

5. Shimon Schaeffer 6. Avraham Zajler 7. Michael Zwangheim – 28% out of 25.

1899/1900: 1. Wilhelm Alexanderwicz 2. Shaul Anderman 3. Shimon Aszkenazy 4. Moshe Geller 5. Yosef Gelber 6. David Hojls 7. Chaim Sztern 8. Fischel Weiner – 22.9% out of 35.

1900/01: 1. Oskar Frieser 2. Wulf Hirschfeld 3. Rudolf Limbarch 4. Wilhelm Rapof 5. Avraham Sapir 6. Shmuel Schmelkes 7. Yacov Wojask (?) – 18.4% out of 38.

1901/2: 1. Heinrich Beer 2. Yacov Mahler 3. Emanuel Polansky (?) 4. Hieronym Polansky (?) 5. Juliusz Rappaport 6. Aharon Weissenberg – 11.5% out of 52.

1902/3: 1. Eliahu Blumenfeld 2. Dawydowicz 3. Yosef Okort 4. Leon Frankel 5. Levi Freund 6. Ludwig Jos (?) 7. Leon Smolowicz 8. Yehuda Blon 9. Elias Beer 10. Markus Bonhart (?) 11. Jan Reichel (?) 12. Avraham Rosen – 18.8% out of 64.

1903/4: 1. Tovia Althajm 2. Eliahu Bonhard 3. Shmuel Breitler 4. Aharon Rappaport 5. Lazar Schildkraut 6. Michael Spajdel (?) – 15.8% out of 38.

1904/5: 1. Adam Hirschler 2. Rudolf Langenfeld (?) 3. Wolf Jung 4. Yacov Pasternak (?) – 8.7% out of 46.

1905/6: 1. Shaul Bonhard 2. Shmuel Tiszel (?) 3. Shmuel Goldschlag 4. Augustyn Jus (?) 5. Yosef Kranz 6. Yosef Rappaport 7. Wilhelm Korngold 8. Moshe Ribenfeld – 14.81% out of 54.

1907/8: 1. Heinrich Fink 2. Heinrich Goldhammer 3. Felix Hauptman 4. Avraham Heller 5. Tadeusz Wajntraub (?) 6. Mendel Wolowski (?) 7. Aharon Ande 8. Yacov Gold 9. Bernard Schildkraut 10. Aizish Sternberg – 25.69% out of 49.

1908/9: 1. Ephraim Einlager 2. Leon Kosowski (?) 3. Marian Nidentahl (?) 4. Alfred Reich 5. Edla Rothenberg 6. Karol Frieser (?) 7. Leib Hirszklow 8. Konstanty Jus (?) 9. Josef Newel 10. Joel Weiner 12. David Wimer – 14.62% out of 82.

1909/10: 1. Chana Kopler 2. Alexander Atlas 3. Adolf Czotiner (?) 4. Markus Forn (?) 5. Mindele Reis 6. Sigfreid Rosenfeld – 8.2% out of 75.

1910/11: 1. Sigmund Bitner 2. Aleksander Karsz 3. Yona Leib 4. Michael Wilk (?) 5. Yosef Bodenstein 6. Phillip Friedman 7. Shmuel Manesberg 8. Yosef Neus (?) 9. Shimon Schildkraut 10. Pyotri Szporn (?) – 14.08% out of 71.

1911/12: 1. Henryk Dekel 2. Gerhard Geltman 3. Herman Gruber 4. Ludwig Heilbruner (?) 5. Paula Klober 6. Avraham Ohrenstein 7. Henryk Riburg (?) – 14.29% out of 49.

1912/13: 1. Yisrael Greenspan 2. Michael Kranz (?) 3. Mordechai Tepper 4. Attilia Affendorf 5. David Bregman 6. Klement Roemer (?) 7. – Stanislaw Reis 12.8%

1913/14: 1. Franciczek Lewi 2. Maria Brandler 3. Yosef Weiner – 7.9% out of 38

1914/15: The gymnasium was closed due to the war.

1915/16: 1. Ernestina Epstein 2. Izabeli Zys 3. Karol Weidell – 6.05% out of 33.

1916/17: 1. Freda Apel 2. Leopold Mozer – 8.33% out of 24.

1917/18: 1. Thaddeus Breit 2. Sarafina Pichman 3. Mariane Kister 4. David Kolber 5. Edward Kuper (?) 6. Kopel Lepel 7. Jadwiga Roemer 8. Tuni Roemer 9. Kazimierz Zys – 24.32% out of 37.

1918/19: 1. Vladislav Breit (?) Fredrich Eichel 3. Alexander Hamerman 4. Zofia Kister 5. Aharon Kuehl 6. David Sobel 7. Yosef Winter – 16.28% out of 43.

1919/20: 1. Henryk Apel 2. Stanislav Eichel 3. Franciszka Nebenzahl 4. Marian Schmid (?) 5. Meier Tieger – 18.7% out of 26.

1920/21: 1. Fani Dampf 2. Rudolf Grossman 3. Leopold Lepel 4. Edmund Mendel 5. Joachim Ohrenstein 6. Severin Romd 7. Karol Rappaport 8. Elias Tenenbaum 9. Alfred Terkel 10. Iziasz Wilner 11. Edward Zeler – 26.93% out of 38.

1921/22: 1. Maria Blumenfeld 2. Brita Bremer 3. Julius Eisenbach 4. Maria Hager 5. Wladyslaw Kondafer (?) 6. Rudolf Lepel 7. Yosef Reich 8. Azchiel Szenkel 9. Isadore Sobel 10. Hodes Szprung 11. Nechel Taneh – 22% out of 40.

1923/23: 1. Yaakov Apel 2. Julius Ohrenstein 3. Moshe Reis 4. Roza Zilber 5. Artur Turkel 6. Rudolf Weidell (?) – 21.43% out of 28.

1923/24: Sophia Dampf 2. Aharon Hirschfeld 3. Shimon Kimmel 4. Heinrich Nebenzahl 5. Alfred Unterricht – 25% out of 20.

1924/25: 1. Chaim Bergenbaum 2. Alvin Gelb (?) 3. Maximilian Gluckstern 4. Pepi Gluckstern 5. Hinda Kanner 6. BenZion Katz 7. Markus Katz 8. Yitzchok Kister 9. Ana Ohrenstein 10. Matilda Reis 11. Anna Zilber 12. Philip Sober (?) 13. Fani Soifrin (?) – 36.1% out of 36.

1925/26: 1. Yosef Bodner 2. Yitzchok Dorlich 3. Adam Guzik 4. Hirsch Halpern 5. David Scheinbach 6. Stanislaw Szenkopf 7. Mendel Bergenbaum 8. Miriam Feder 9. Hirsch Gorfinkel 10. Alexander Gross 11. Wanda Lepel 12. Yitzchok Mais 13. Rivka Schneck 14. Tadeusz Gozik 15. Hieronym Krobs 16. Isaac Lerner 17. Yisrael Leib 18. Stefania Poritz 19. Pincus Robinson 20. Chaya Schiff 21. Artur Traund 22. Julia Unterricht 23. Anthony Weidell – 27.71% out of 83.

1926/27: 1. Yechiel Kister 2. Leopold Ohrenstein 3. Devora Trachman 4. Klara Wilner 5. Leon Omnt 6. Antonina Furman (?) 7. Leib Reich 8. Jodwiga Roter (?) 9. Karolina Sufrin 10. Natan Wallach – 20.84% out of 48.

1927/1928: 1. Esther Amster 2. Sara Amster 3. Baruch Bildinger 4. Rivke Gurfein 5. Mina Gluckstern 6. Mina Goldmark 7. Natalia Ohrenstein 8. Markus Reich 9. Mina Rosenblatt 10. Regina Sztajnmec 11. Chaya Wilner 12. Kazimierz Eisenbach 13. Yisrael Halpern 14. Hirsch Jacobowicz 15. Moshe Katz 16. Yisrael Lembach 17. Yosef Mais 18. Mendel Osterring – 33.34% out of 54.

1928/29: 1. Emil Beer 2. Jan Eisenbach 3. Sara Fischel 4. Gitla Freudes 5. Yitzchok Halpern 6. Heinrich Poritz 7. Norbert Roemer 8. Bluma Reich 9. Pinchas Reich

10. Yitzchak Schiff 11. Yudes Zilber 12. Chaya Spiro 13. Esther Weimer – 21.31% out of 61.

1929/30: 1. Hirsch Maier 2. Sigmund Poritz 3. Moshe Rosenblatt 4. Manla Wolf 5. Hela Amkraut 6. Sala Beer 7. Mina Gurfein 8. Arna Hass 9. Ana Klugman 10. Anna Osterring 11. Tarza Roker 12. Wikta Rozenkranc 13. Sigmund Schreiber 14. Yoelisch Treusser – 23.7% out of 59.

1930/31: 1. Yaakov Mais 2. Solomon Reich 3. Feige Amster 4. Hela Dym 5. Lodwicka Greenspan 6. Estera Jacobowicz 7. Yehuda Katz 8. Zagislaw Reichel 9. Olga Salomon (?) 10. Adam Szank 11. Heinrich Schudmak 12. Shmuel Sysman – 16.44% out of 73.

1931/32: 1. Wilhelm Beer (?) 2. Alfred Herzig 3. Edward Lindenberger 4. Sara Parnes 5. Leon Rozenbildher (?) 6. Ascher Rubenfeld 7. Tonka Jarmark 8. Herman Schachner 9. Feiga Taub 10. Alfred Ohrenstein 11. Solomon Osterring – 17.25% out of 78.

1933/34: 1. Solomon Kampf 2. Francescka Wachtel 3. Leizer Baron 4. Gershon Pipe 5. Yaacov Wachtel – 18.52% out of 51.

1934/35: 1. Moshe Graf 2. Yosef Abt – 4.4% out of 45.

1935/36: 1. David Lerner 2. David Schiff 3. Yacov Trachman – 6.25% out of 48.

1936/37: 1. Avraham Bartfeld 2. Avraham Gorfajn 3. Yitzchok Felder 4. Yacov Symon – 7.4% out of 54.

1937/38: 1. Estewan Kaszmer 2. Yitzchok Lazar 3. Yacov Gurfein 4. Simcha Witzner – 5.3% out of 75.

1938/39: 1. Zigmund Freudenheim 2. Avraham Laufer 3. Robert Ortner – 6.8% out of 44.

1. Dr. Shmuel Andzhajm 2. Yosef Apel 3. Yaakov Gluckstern 4. Leon Wilkobosky 5. Regina Victor 6. Hili Gelb 7. Euginia Finsterbusz 8. Jerzy Siegel 9. Stefan Zydowski 10. Sofia Rozenbajger 11. Mark Polak.

[Page 82]

General subjects were taught in this school aside from the primary subjects and those unique to this institution – accounting and commerce. All necessary efforts were made by the school leadership so that the students would acquire the maximal professional knowledge at the conclusion of their studies, and that they would leave the school with their diploma. We should point out that many of the graduates of Komercium utilized the knowledge that they acquired at the school as their primary profession in their future practical lives, as they obtained stable positions in various companies and commercial enterprises. Such graduates included Arye Wasserman at the Berber-Sobol machine business; Tzipporah Trattner and Uri Katz at Trachman's business; Yitzchok Fink and Shimon Firer at the office of Hauptman's business; Margolies and Finter at the commercial bank, and others.

The success of this school did not continue, due to its struggle for existence. Aside from the fact that it did not receive any communal or government support, a decree was issued for it to liquidate by the competition institution that was established by the gentile circles, which obviously received all the necessary assistance from the government. A regular school for commerce was established as an extension of the elementary school. It was set up in an appropriate building on Kosziuski Street. The principal of the school was Mr. Hanus and later Mr. Sandecki. They concerned themselves that this school would receive full rights, and that its level would indeed by high. Therefore, many of the students of this school were children of Jewish religious and nationalistic families.

Photo page 82: The General School of Commerce, 1928

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Translator's Footnote

1. The term 'dressing' refers to non-essential, brief interpretations, as opposed to critical interpretations covering the main body of the text. return

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