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For decades the uncrowned head, spokesman and representative of those who were opposed to Hassidism, especially the learned and exceptional among them, was the Gaon Rabbi Yissachar Berish Shapira, a wise and learned man, of distinguished lineage and many talents. He continued the golden heritage of the geonim of Lithuania of previous generations faithfully and with true dedication.

The Gaon Rabbi Yissachar Berish Shapira was born in Kalwaria, Lithuania^[1], to the illustrious gaon who was its pride, Rabbi Isaac Charif [“the Sharp”], who later served as the rabbi of Tiktin [Tykocin], Kutno and Slonim. He became known in his and in later generations as Rabbi Isaac Charif^[2].

Rabbi Isaac was born in Globanka [Glubokie, today Hlybokaye, Belarus], a town near Minsk, in the year 5561 [1801], to his righteous father Rabbi Yechiel, son of the Hassidic Gaon Rabbi Mordechai. His father and grandfather were great scholars whose renown as righteous men came mostly from their deeds and ways of life. They were among the most respected Jews of their times.

From early in his youth it was already apparent that Rabbi Isaac was an extraordinary and exceptional genius, sharper than all others, wise and sharp–witted from childhood. He studied at Blumke's study hall in Minsk, under the supervision of the famed Gaon Rabbi Avraham Dworitzer. At a young age one of the important citizens of Minsk, Reb Yitzchak Fein, took him as a son–in–law. Since that time he was called Rabbi Isaac Charif, whether it was because of his sharpness or whether it was that the letters of Charif stood for the first letters of “Chatan Reb Yitzchak Fein” (son–in–law of Reb Yitzchak Fein).

When he was just seventeen he was considered the stand–in for the famed Rabbi Avraham Dworitzer as a lecturer in the study hall and even as a gifted preacher. His father–in–law, Reb Yitzchak Fein, supported him and refused to hear anything about his beloved son–in–law leaving Minsk. But when the residents of Kalwaria came and offered the job of rabbi in their town to the young Gaon Rabbi Isaac, whose name had spread far and wide, Rabbi Isaac quickly accepted the offer. He moved with the members of his family to that town, as he could not abide Minsk and its wealthy people.

From Kalwaria, the small Lithuanian town, he then went to Kutno, the well respected and well endowed Polish city, where he had been selected as chief of the rabbinical court. He remained there for a while before he moved his family there, but the Polish Hassidic atmosphere of Kutno did not please him. He left the city and never came back. He went on to serve as the chief of the rabbinical court of Tiktin, and from there went on to occupy the chair of the rabbinate in Slonim, where he remained until his final days.

This exceptional gaon was superior in the sharpness of his intellect and his greatness in the Torah to all others of his generation. His name was mentioned with praise in Jewish communities everywhere. His Torah teachings lasted for generations. His books included: Emek Yehoshua [The Valley of Joshua] and Nachlat Yehoshua [The Legacy of Joshua], Noam Yerushalmi [The Delight of Jerusalem] in four large volumes, as well as Avi Hanachal [Source of the River], S'fat Hanachal [The Bank of the River], Marbeh Eitzah [Extending Advice], and Atzat Yehoshua [The Advice of Joshua], and his last book, Marbeh T'vunah [Promoting Understanding], a book of lectures and ethical teachings.

Rabbi Isaac was particularly known for his wisdom and his great acuity. His sayings became a permanent asset of the legacy of his generation and of those that followed. A pithy, wise and sharp pronouncement was the greatest weapon of this great gaon, who behaved with extreme modesty

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and whose behavior was without blemish. In this spirit he educated his three sons, the Gaon Rabbi Yissachar Berish of Ostroveh; the Gaon Rabbi Moshe Shapira, one of the rabbis of Riga, and author of P'nei Moshe [The Face of Moses], S'fat Haemek [The Edge of the Valley] and other works; and Rabbi Mordechai, the youngest of his sons. The Gaon Rabbi Isaac took ill on Thursday, the third day of Tevet, 5633 [January 2, 1873], and the next day, on the eve of the Sabbath, the fourth of Tevet, he passed away. His son–in–law, husband of his only and wonderful daughter, Rabbi Yosef Schleifer^[3], the genius of Denenberg [Dinaburg–Dvinsk, today Daugavpils, Latvia], took the place of his father–in–law in Slonim for many years.

Rabbi Berish first married a woman from Nowy Dwor near Warsaw, and lived there for several years, supported by his wealthy father–in–law. But his first wife died young. The name of Rabbi Yissachar Berish was circulated all over the country, and many respectable matches were proposed to him. Rabbis and rebbes wanted to have him as a son–in–law. But Rabbi Berish preferred to marry a woman who was the daughter of a wealthy merchant family. He rejected the rabbinate or other public role. But on the other hand, he was not prepared to dedicate too much of his time either to business or to the maintenance of a household. The daughter of a merchant family would know how to run a household and would be able to help him run a business, which in turn would enable him learn Torah extensively.

Therefore Rabbi Berish married a woman of the wealthy Bromberg family of Ostrow Mazowiecka^[4]. In the year 5610 [1849–1850] he came to that city and stayed there more than fifty years. He became the spokesman for the Torah–oriented community of Ostroveh, and an integral part thereof, the pride of the community in its glory days.

He had a textile store in the heart of town, which for all intents and purposes was managed by his wife, and to which Rabbi Berish devoted only a small part of his time, solely in regard to its accounts and its correspondence with its suppliers. He never set foot in the store itself, never even crossed its threshold. He belonged completely to another world, the world of the Torah.

His true place was to be found on the eastern wall of the new study house, the stronghold of the Mitnagdim, as he was counted among the strongest opponents to Hassidim and Hassidism, especially the Hassidism that was not distinguished by its Torah learning. Like his father he despised the ignoramus and the unlearned. He negated the Hassid who was not well versed in the Torah and did not devote at least some of his day to it.

Upon his arrival in Ostroveh he became the spokesman of the Mitnagdim, their leader and guide. His own lineage and that of his ancestors served him well. Great scholars and learned men of the city gathered around him, and since his coming they, like the Hassidim, became a united and permanent force. The power of the Hassidim always derived from their unity, by their appearance as a single body given to following a rebbe or other great Hassid as their representative vis–à–vis their rivals, the Mitnagdim. The weakness of the Mitnagdim in Ostroveh was in their divisiveness, in the absence of a single force of great influence and standing, to whom they would submit and whose authority they would willingly accept. Rabbi Berish fulfilled this function from the very moment he settled in the city. He was a learned man of Torah and good works, a servant of God who was meticulously observant of His commandments, yet also a wise man and a man of action, one who was wealthy enough not to be dependent on anyone.

Hassidim and Mitnagdim came into conflict in Ostroveh. The city, which lay in the approaches to Lithuania from Poland, and whose Jewish population had come from various different places, both from Lithuania and from central Poland, had become a battleground between fervent Hassidim and sworn Mitnagdim. Each movement endeavored to dominate the institutions of the community and to extend the lines of its influence. Hassidim and Mitnagdim fought over the selection of a rabbi. If the Hassidim succeeded in choosing a rabbi, the Mitnagdim would do battle with him up to the point where he had to leave his position. If a Mitnaged became the rabbi, the Hassidim would fight with him until he packed his bags and left the place. The Mitnagdim believed with all their hearts that in their battle for hegemony over the community they were fighting for the rule of the Torah and scholarship, for true unlimited and uncorrupted rule of the explicit Halacha as

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found in the Shulchan Aruch. The Hassidim believed with all their hearts that in their fight for hegemony over the community and its institutions that they were fighting for a life of holiness and purity, for a life of pure Hassidism that would guarantee a faithful character to the community and its institutions for generations to come.

At the head of the Mitnagdic camp stood the Gaon Rabbi Berish Shapira, while at the head of the Hassidic camp was the Gaon Rabbi Ben–Zion Rabinowitz. Both of them were exceptional people that few could hope to match. Thanks to them the conflict never exceeded reasonable, accepted bounds. It never reverted to means that were beyond proper community relations, but relations were nevertheless tense. However, false accusations, physical confrontations or the resort to the dominant non–Jewish authorities for them to determine an issue were unknown in Ostroveh.

Rabbi Berish was firm in his beliefs and outlook, but he was prepared to concede on minor details, on monetary matters, or on matters of personal honor. But he was as hard as flint stone on matters of weltanschauung [world view], on matters of Judaism. In his battles over these matters he did not accept compromise and did not accept things as they were. Without weakening he held to his position as he understood and recognized it. Honest efforts of the Hassidim to convince him were unsuccessful. On the contrary, they only strengthened his opposition.

Rabbi Berish faithfully and devotedly adhered to the ways and views of the Gaon Rabbi Isaac of Slonim. Rabbi Isaac successfully led his flock with great wisdom, preserving the ancient character of the institutions of the community and rabbinic traditions. The pathways and actions of his father served as an example and a model for him, the true path from which one should not veer right or left, a well paved road that was obligatory unto all.

Rabbi Isaac Charif of Slonim visited with his son Rabbi Berish several times. His visits to Ostrow Mazowiecka became impressive occasions. The learned people of the city prepared for such visits. They surrounded the great gaon all the time that he was in town, and hardly ever left Rabbi Berish's house. The famous and extraordinary rabbi of Slonim was like a flowing well that never ceased to supply life– giving water, whether they were innovative ideas in Halacha or in the Babylonian or Jerusalem Talmuds that evoked amazement and appreciation, or whether they were other sharp or wise thoughts that learned people mulled over much. Whenever the great gaon came, he expounded in the study house, to which masses of young men streamed just to hear him. Rabbi Isaac Charif would usually deliver words of Torah and ethics, expounded and innovated, interwoven with great depth and acuity. Even the best of the listeners had to try hard to plumb the full depths of the ideas of this prince of the Torah, but at times did not succeed in doing so. No one dared to approach this great gaon to seek a further explanation of his words out of awe and politeness, admiration and love. Rabbi Berish served as the address for the explanation of his great father's thoughts, as he was among the few who quickly grasped the depth of his thought and the amazing sharpness of this leading gaon of the generation.

The visits of the Gaon Rabbi Isaac to Ostroveh only strengthened the Mitnagdic camp and the position of Rabbi Berish, as its leader and spokesman. Despite all this, relations between Rabbi Berish the Mitnaged and Rabbi Ben–Zion the Hassid remained proper and friendly. Their differences remained in the realm of their respective outlooks, but never entered the personal sphere. Whenever they met they were genuinely glad to see one another.

When the question of the selection of the Gaon Rabbi Yehuda Leib Gordin as rabbi of the community arose, Rabbi Berish and Rabbi Ben–Zion traveled to Augustow, the place of residence of the rabbi, to evaluate his character and nature. These two exceptional people traveled together in a friendly manner, despite the fact that they represented two camps, two different worlds.

This took place after Rabbi Berish had worked hard to choose the Gaon Rabbi Shimon Dov Anolik as rabbi of the city. At that time he was the rabbi of Shaki, that small Lithuanian town. Rabbi Anolik was among the sharpest students of his father, Rabbi Isaac Charif, and a soul mate of Rabbi Berish, who finally convinced the members of the community to select “the Black Genius” (as Rabbi Shimon Dov was called in Lithuania) as rabbi of the city. But

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things did not work out for Rabbi Berish. While the community did present a rabbinical contract to Rabbi Anolik, and while he did appear in Ostroveh, the people of Shaki opposed this with all their might. They put pressure on the rabbi's wife, who absolutely refused to move to Ostroveh in light of what its Hassidim had done to the previous rabbi because he was a Mitnaged. Rabbi Anolik returned to Shaki. (Later he served as chief of the rabbinical court of Tiktin and from there went on to become the rabbi of Siedlce.)

Rabbi Berish prayed at the new study hall, where he was a leader and member of a study group called Tot, a Mitnagdic group of exceptional men of action. They did not remove their prayer shawls or phylacteries after morning prayers, but rather sat down to study throughout the morning hours still wearing their prayer shawls and phylacteries without having yet eaten anything. During the twenties and thirties of the seventh century of the fifth millennium [5620–5640 on the Hebrew calendar, equating to 1859–1880], this group included tens of members, among them some extraordinary scholars, well accepted and exceptional people, whose entire lives were dedicated to serving God in extreme modesty and devotion, with unparalleled self–sacrifice.

Like his father the great gaon, Rabbi Berish was noted for his great sharpness that amazed many people. He was particularly known for his ability in mathematical Hebrew word games [gimatriyot]. In a split second he was able to calculate the mathematical values of any saying, from which he could reveal secrets of the Torah inherent therein, which impressed many people. After his death he left a large book of these computations. His sons intended to publish it, but for some reason they did not succeed in doing so and the manuscript was lost in the Holocaust. Some of the novellae of Rabbi Berish were published at the end of his father's book, Emek Yehoshua (in the second edition that was published by his brother the Gaon Rabbi Moshe Shapira, one of the rabbis of Riga). These are innovations in various subjects of the Talmud, according to the method of his father, the gaon.

After the death of his second wife^[5], Rabbi Berish immigrated to the Land of Israel. He remained for a time in Jerusalem. But because he was a Russian citizen, he was subject to the draft when war broke out between Russia and Turkey, which then ruled Palestine. So after half a year he returned to Ostroveh, and remained in the city until the day of his death, the tenth of Adar, 5662 [February 10, 1902]^[6].

His son, Rabbi Yechiel Shapira, moved to Linshitz [Lenczyca]. The grandsons of Rabbi Berish, including the Gaon Rabbi Moshe Aaron Nathanson, chief of the rabbinical court of Zlochow [Zloczow or Zloczev], became Hassidim of Ger.

Among the outstanding dayanim [religious judges] of Ostroveh and the rabbis who graced the rabbinate there was the Gaon Rabbi Yitzchak David Shulevitz, who served as a dayan and teacher of Halacha [rabbi] for nearly fifty years, first in Komorowo and then in neighboring Ostroveh.

Rabbi Yitzchak David's origins were in an outstanding and completely Hassidic family. He was the grandson of Rabbi Yaakov of Zarnovitz [Zarnoviec], one of the important students of the rebbe Rabbi Simcha Bunim of Peshischa. Already at an early age he stood out as an excellent and diligent student whose whole world consisted of the universe of the Torah.

He studied at various yeshivot and was ordained by the leading gaon of the generation, Rabbi Chaim Soloveichik, the chief of the rabbinical court of Brisk [Brest–Litovsk] and one of the greatest of rabbis. At a young age he was appointed as rabbi in Komorowo near Ostroveh. After a few years he was selected as a dayan in Ostroveh. From then until the community's final destruction he never abandoned his high position.

He was a gaon of the Torah and an exceptional teacher of Halacha, whose name was widely known. He was especially diligent. Starting in 5670 [1909–1910] he would complete the study of the entire Talmud every year. Thus he completed it thirty times until the outbreak of the Holocaust, his other responsibilities as a dayan and his other studies notwithstanding.

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Rabbi Yitzchak David was close to the long line of tzadikim [rebbes] of the house of Amshinov, especially the rebbe Rabbi Yosef. He was among his best friends. He never deviated from the bounds of Torah and Halacha. He loved people and brought them closer to the Torah. He was also non–partisan, and never got involved in any dispute or conflict between the various movements in town.

On a Friday, the first day of the last war, the day that the German hordes invaded Poland, Nazi airplanes bombed Ostrow Mazowiecka and caused deaths and serious injuries in the city. Rabbi Yitzchak David was among the wounded and never recovered. He was expelled from the city by the cruel murderers and went to Bialystok in the Soviet zone of occupation. Despite the efforts of the doctors, he still did not get well. On the sixteenth day of Shevat in the year 5700 [January 25–26, 1940], he passed away. Thousands from among the residents of Bialystok as well as from the masses of refugees from the Nazi zone of occupation attended his funeral.

The Gaon Rabbi Avraham Frenkel^[7] was yet a young man when he arrived in Ostrow Mazowiecka to marry the daughter of Reb Tevel Kelewitz [Kieliwicz], a well known wine merchant of the city. He immediately distinguished himself with his greatness in Torah and his superior personal traits. A moderate and modest young man, he exhibited a refined manner that evoked admiration and affection from everyone.

He quickly joined the Ger Hassidic community in town. He was among the sharpest and best of its young men, one of the group of followers of the Hassidic Gaon Rabbi Ben–Zion Rabinowitz. He was also modest in everything that he did and welcomed everyone with a smiling face. Young in age but great in Torah, immediately upon his arrival he was deemed one of the greatest students in the city, which was full of outstanding Torah scholars.

At the young age of twenty–four Rabbi Avraham was named by the Gaon Rabbi Yehuda Leib Gordin, the chief rabbi of the city, to be a dayan. He quickly excelled in his public role and in his contacts and relationships with people with affection and dedication. He served with devotion as a dayan and teacher of Halacha, and despite his young age succeeded in earning the trust of all the residents of the community, both Hassidim and Mitnagdim. The scholars and wise men of Ostroveh heaped praise on Rabbi Avraham's rulings, with his decisions being considered like those of a veteran.

Rabbi Avraham was admired and respected by the large community Ger Hassidim. He was close to and beloved by Rabbi Avraham Mordechai of Ger. Many had high hopes for him, believing that he would eventually attain an exalted and central position among the rabbis of his generation and the giants of Torah.

But in the year 5775 [1915], when Ostroveh was conquered by the imperial German army, illnesses and plagues broke out in the city. The Gaon Rabbi Avraham was struck with an infectious disease and died in the prime of his life––he was not quite thirty–six years old––to the great sorrow of the members of the community.

Lest the Jews of Ostrow Mazowiecka be defined strictly by their various movements, masses of people cried in the streets at the death of Rabbi Avraham at the prime of his years, at the very threshold of his life. No one remained in their home during the funeral of the young dayan. He was brought to his final resting place amidst deep mourning. His widow and children remained in Ostroveh, and were killed in the Holocaust^[8].

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He was the son of the Gaon Rabbi Meir Dan Plotzky, chief of the rabbinical court of Dvart and of Ostrow Mazowiecka. He was born in the year 5648 [1887–1888] in Dvart. He studied in the yeshiva of his father the gaon. He excelled in his great acuity and his strong desire to study, viewing his studies as the most important aspect, the essence, of his life.

After his marriage he continued in his studies with great enthusiasm and diligence. He studied out of a sense of need, with joy and dedication. Like his father the gaon, Rabbi Yisrael Natan was one of the sharpest and most devoted Hassidim of Ger. He frequently traveled to visit the rebbe, the author of the S'fat Emet, in Ger, and later his son, the rebbe Rabbi Avraham Mordechai.

In the year 5688 [1928] the Gaon Rabbi Meir Dan Plotzky died in Warsaw, after he had previously left his post in the rabbinate of Ostrow Mazowiecka and moved to Warsaw to serve as head of the yeshiva called Metivta. The family of the gaon then demanded the post of rabbi of the town for one of his sons, claiming that Rabbi Yisrael Natan was an appropriate replacement for his great father.

The people of the community of Ostroveh objected. They rejected any right of inheritance, arguing that Rabbi Meir Dan had left the seat of the rabbinate in Ostroveh voluntarily and therefore had renounced any claims to that position and willingly accepted the idea of another rabbi being selected in his stead. In their view, then, there was no basis for the family's claim. Yet there were some in the community who supported the claim of the late gaon's family, as many of the residents of Ostrow Mazowiecka were among his admirers.

After extended discussions, a rabbinic law suit was initiated. But with the agreement of both parties it was decided that Rabbi Yisrael Natan would serve as a dayan and teacher of Halacha in the city. But on the other hand the members of the family agreed to waive any rights to the community's chief rabbinate.

From that time until the outbreak of the Holocaust, Rabbi Yisrael Natan served among the rabbis of Ostroveh. He took an active part in rabbinical matters and matters of religion in the community, and worked diligently and with his characteristic passion to preserve Judaism. At the same time he did not desist from his diligent study day or night.

His father, the Gaon Rabbi Meir Dan, had mentioned his son Rabbi Yisrael Natan in many places in his book. And after the death of Rabbi Meir Dan, his son re–published his father's novellae along with his own additions. Rabbi Yisrael Natan wrote several different books, novellae on the Talmud and on Halacha. These manuscripts remained in Ostroveh until the outbreak of the Holocaust but then disappeared.

With the capture of the city by the brutal Nazi soldiers, Rabbi Yisrael Natan moved to Slonim in the Soviet zone of occupation. He was still there when the Nazis conquered it at the time of the outbreak of the war between Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany. Rabbi Yisrael Natan suffered greatly in the Slonim ghetto that was established by the Nazi murderers. But even in those difficult and bitter days he did not cease to study and teach. With the destruction of the ghetto, Rabbi Yisrael Natan, along with his wife and four daughters, became part of the overall sacrifice of those who were killed^[9].

The Gaon Rabbi Avraham Yosef Zinowitz [Cynowicz] was born in the year 5625 [1864–1865] in Zambrow [Zambroveh]^[10], the third of four sons born to the gaon and tzadik Rabbi Chaim Tzvi, one of the elite of his generation. It was said of Rabbi Chaim Tzvi that he fasted during the study breaks and only ate each day after afternoon prayers. His entire life was dedicated to Torah and good works, while his entrepreneurial wife ran a store for manufactured goods to support the household. Rabbi Chaim Tzvi was very righteous. He prayed for extended hours at a time, and secluded himself in his room every day, wearing shrouds

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that he had prepared for himself and placed pottery shards on his eyes to remind himself of the day of his death. On such days he would cry a lot and would do complete penance before his maker.

His son, Rabbi Avraham Yosef, was considered an excellent student from the earliest days of his youth, when he went to the Volozhin yeshiva to study Torah. He stood out as a very diligent pupil with an unusual memory. When he was just twenty years old he was selected as a dayan and a teacher of Halacha in Ostroveh, which was at the time full of superior scholars and students. He served as a dayan in the city for twenty years, at the time when brilliant rabbis and famous geonim served in the city's rabbinate.

In the year 5665 [1904–1905] Rabbi Avraham Yosef moved to Lomza, where he was appointed as a dayan and teacher of Halacha. He served for thirty–five years in that major provincial city, where he was much beloved unto its residents. Over the years Rabbi Avraham Yosef acquired an enormous library of Torah–related books that included thousands of valuable volumes. His name became famous beyond the city of his residence as a wonderful bibliographer, in addition to his greatness in Torah. Diligence characterized him all the days of his long life. Every free moment was dedicated to study.

His manner was pleasant. He received everyone with kindness, and worked in particular to attract the youth and bring them to Torah, in the study of which he envisioned the image of everything. In his conversations with people it was clear that he was a true lover of the Jewish people, a fortress in peoples' times of sorrow, one who penetrated to the depths of their troubles. When he sat in judgment he always sought to plumb the depths of the law. He preferred compromise and would be lenient wherever it was possible without deviating from the explicit Halacha.

Since the rise of the Mizrachi movement^[11] within the Zionist organization, Rabbi Avraham Yosef was among its loyal followers. Already from his days in Ostroveh he was supportive of the organizers of the religious Zionist movement locally. He did this not out in the open, because he preferred not to get involved in controversy with the Hassidim in the city, who completely negated Zionism and the Mizrachi. Once he had moved to Lomza, however, Rabbi Avraham publicly joined the Mizrachi movement and supported it on every occasion. The rabbi aspired to immigrate to the Land of Israel. It was his dream, but he was never able to fulfill it. He was among forty rabbis who signed a petition on behalf of the Jewish National Fund^[12] in Poland.

By nature he was modest, and generally tried not to stand out. The same applied to his son–in–law, Rabbi David Rosenbaum, who in his youth was famously referred to as the “Genius of Goworowo”^[13]. He, too, turned down the rabbinate out of modesty. At the same time Rabbi Avraham Yosef did stand out in terms of his comprehensive knowledge about medicine, which attracted him. He learned to understand the nature of medicines that the doctors in Lomza gave to the ill, and more than once debated with them, and occasionally they admitted that he was correct. For a time Rabbi Avraham Yosef was hospitalized at the hospital in Warsaw, under the care of Dr. Frishman. While there, he spent most of his time learning about the methods of medicine. He spoke extensively with the doctors, who explained to him the bases of modern medicine. When he realized that Dr. Frishman was overly interested in money, and cared for patients in accordance with how much money he received, he reproved him for this without reservation.

But the basis of his life and its substance was the Torah and its study. And until his last day he did not cease to learn and to teach. He wrote many novellae on the Talmud and on Halacha, but out of modesty declined to publish them. His grandson, Rabbi Shmuel Chaim Rosenbaum, may God avenge his death, finally published his book, Salsalot Yosef [The Adornments of Joseph].

Rabbi Avraham Yosef was seventy–five years old when the Holocaust broke out. He remained in the city and suffered much under Soviet rule. With the outbreak of the Soviet Russian–Nazi German war, Lomza was conquered violently by the German hordes. Rabbi Avraham Yosef was exiled. He suffered his pains with love, and remained diligent in his studies until the day he was taken to be killed and became a martyr. His oldest daughter, Naomi, was married to

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Rabbi David Rosenblum, the “Genius of Goworowo;” his second daughter, Bracha, was married to Rabbi Yehoshua Mondliak of Warsaw; and his youngest daughter was married to Rabbi Yechezkel Kaplan, chief of the rabbinical court of Podbriza [possibly Podbereze–Paberza near Vilna, Lithuania]^[14].

Rabbi Wolf Ber lived his life in Ostroveh with certainty of faith, enthusiasm and divine inspiration. He was a first year lecturer in the local yeshiva. He was a wise and sharp Jew, an outstanding scholar and true Hassid, who combined Torah and good works. He was a Jew who was full of the love of Torah and of God, who had great trust in God, and was truly devoted to his work all the days of his long life.

For most of his life he served as a lecturer in the first year of the yeshiva. His daily lectures were given with great enthusiasm and energy, with his voice reaching great distances. He regularly taught his students his material, day in and day out, year in and year out, but he always looked like he was just a beginner in his work. His enthusiasm increased as he got into the subject matter that was being studied, to the point where Rabbi Wolf Ber and the Gemara that was open before him became a single inseparable living creature.

His enthusiasm did not interfere with his actual study. It was not superficial at all, despite the fact that his students were very young lads who were just entering the yeshiva. In his lessons he did not introduce many innovative ideas. He refrained from that in order not to impose upon the boys. But he wove into his lecture profound distinctions, questions and answers, as if they were an inseparable part of the Gemara itself. He was happy when he found a student who could go into depth in his study, who could understand the implications of what he had learned. His joy then knew no bounds, his eyes lit up, as if he had won a big prize in the Russian lottery.

Rabbi Wolf Ber was a very smart Jew. He understood people well, and one had to be cunning with him. While he witnessed everything that going on about him, and understood the changing times, he himself belonged to another world, a higher world, a world of Torah and pure Hassidism. His used his great understanding to preserve a secret, like spring in his heart. He never had any money in his life. He did not make a fortune from his job. Therefore he concealed his pain. He hid it behind a facade of true happiness.

Rabbi Wolf Ber was a true Hassid, one of those early Hassidim whose very essence was devotion and self–sacrifice, whose flame of Hassidism burst forth from the inner, extremely positive wellsprings of his heart. He was an Amshinover Hassid, coming from the house of study of the Warka [Vurka, Vorki] Hassidim. He worked on this pure Hassidism all the days of his life. It demanded everything that was in his heart and soul. Therefore Rabbi Wolf Ber invested the essence of his life, his vitality, in Hassidism.

He was poverty stricken all his life, managing to get by during the week by sheer improvisation. But on the Sabbath his table was a veritable holy altar. The nobility of his life was expressed on the Sabbath, in his prayers and in his songs, in his conversation. His family did not follow in his footsteps, but Rabbi Wolf Ber learned to live with this disappointment as well. His son–in–law, the well known writer Tz.Z. Weisberg, writes about him in his autobiographical book, Drachim Aveilot [Mournful Pathways]. “… He was an old man, more than seventy, with a distinguished face, a teacher in the local yeshiva, wise and understanding, and an outstanding scholar. Most of his life was full of trouble and poverty. He was tested by many challenges, with many family tragedies. But he overcame them purified and cleansed. Now a widower, still carrying the burden in his old age of his sons and daughters, still full of strength

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and power. He knew how to assuage the pain of the members of his family and to expel sadness from his home.”

It is told that once on the Sabbath Rabbi Wolf Ber was sitting at his meal, full of devotion and enthusiasm, when a rumor went around in the neighborhood where he lived––far from the center of town––that Poles in the suburbs had begun to attack Jews. They would soon reach the street where Rabbi Wolf Ber lived. The Jews in the house and on that street were gripped with panic. Both young and old knew what such attacks meant and what Poles were capable of doing once they went beyond their limits and attacked defenseless Jews. Rabbi Wolf Ber stopped his meal and went to find out the truth of what was going on. He put on his armor of trust and faith. And radiating joy and happiness, he calmed the people in his house. He then returned to his table and his singing, and ascended to a higher world.

One of the early heads of the Hassidim of Kotsk in Ostroveh was Rabbi David Leib Eitzels, a true, distinguished and wonderful Hassid. His living, derived from a limited amount of elementary level teaching, was very modest. His actual and principal work was Hassidism.

He had no children, but he was always full of happiness and enthusiasm. Unlike other Kotsk Hassidim, he prayed in the early hours of the morning, which freed him up to teach his young students, except on those days when he would stay with his teacher in Kotsk or in Ger. Towards evening he would appear in the Hassidic hall, where he would drink a small glass of liquor. He never hid his happiness from others, and was always ready and willing to dance and to manifest other aspects of his devotion to God with gladness.

He was a true Hassid and a very modest person, given the nature of his work. He was convinced that if something was lacking in his life, he apparently was undeserving of it. Therefore he had to work hard to attain a higher form of happiness that lifts a depressed soul. He thus overcame his torment and ignored the woes of the times. Even in the evening of his life, when he endured illness and pain, he never abandoned his happiness. Whenever Rabbi David Leib would appear in the Hassidic house, he brought joy along with him, as if it accompanied him in all his ways and deeds. Its light penetrated the whole house and all its attendees as well.

He was one of Rabbi Ben–Zion of Ostroveh's adherents, one of his friends and loyal followers. He was full of Torah, a real scholar who endeavored to conceal his extensive knowledge from the eyes of others. Only his students knew that he was an expert in the Talmud, and never even needed a book to remind him of anything. An old man who lived a full life, he died before the outbreak of World War I. The Hassidim of Ostroveh mourned his passing greatly.

One of the earliest Hassidim in Ostroveh was Rabbi Zundel. He was learned, wealthy and a distinguished and great Hassid, who was one of a kind in his character, in his deeds and in his ways. Few were like him, even in the glory days of Hassidism.

From his earliest days Rabbi Zundel was among the sharpest and best of the Hassidim of Kotsk. He was an excellent scholar and a true Hassid. He was a successful merchant who had attained wealth. He was also a great philanthropist, and given to acts of charity that would amaze anyone who heard about them. For example, there was a poor widow who sold liquor for Passover. Once, the holiday came and the poor woman had not been able to sell her beverages,

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which had cost her a lot of money. She was unable to keep the liquor for Passover of the following year or to sell it during the year. As liquor for Passover is expensive, while liquor during the year was inexpensive, it was both an obvious and a great loss for her. The unfortunate widow was downtrodden and depressed and did not know what to do. Rabbi Zundel heard about the incident. He quickly went over to this widow and purchased all the liquor from her at Passover prices, saying that he needed Passover liquor in particular and he needed it immediately.

Another story is told about Rabbi Zundel. Once he was on his way to Kotsk. He left the city in a wagon hitched to horses. Some Hassidim, who were his friends and from his Hassidic house, accompanied him along the road. Those who accompanied him now parted, except for one who continued on the journey. He was full of sadness and his head hung low. Rabbi Zundel did not cease to try to help him to overcome his depression. He later revealed his problem. He had just concluded an agreement for the engagement of his daughter, for which he was required to promise a dowry. The time had come to pay it, but he had no money available. It would be an embarrassment for him and his family if the engagement were called off.

Rabbi Zundel wrote a note to his wife saying, “Please pay the bearer the sum of…”, which was the amount of the dowry. He gave the note to the poor Hassid to take to his wife, who thought that her husband Rabbi Zundel owed this Hassid this large sum of money.

Rabbi Zundel owned a large store in Ostroveh, which provided his income and wealth. Once on a Sabbath a fire broke out in the store. Rabbi Zundel, as usual, was in his Hassidic house. They came and told him that your store is on fire. Rabbi Zundel turned away nonchalantly. He did not get up or move, saying, “The fire is not my concern, because on the Sabbath I have no store.”

When the Hassidic rebbe Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Kotsk died, Rabbi Zundel joined with the community that crowned his son, Rabbi David, as rebbe. He continued going to Kotsk. He was chosen as one of the heads of those Hassidim and one of their leaders. He was honored and admired by all. He was one of those rare personalities who combined greatness in Torah and Hassidism with ethics and good deeds. He was one of the elite few who controlled their desires and became a symbol and model in their lifetimes.

Up until the destruction of Ostrow Mazowiecka the Hassidim of the city would still mention the name of Rabbi Zundel, speaking of his wonderful deeds and ways as a symbol for his generation and the generations that followed.

He was one of the first Hassidim in Ostrow Mazowiecka and one of the outstanding ones. He would frequently travel to the Hassidic rebbe Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Kotsk. He was an excellent scholar, possessing exceedingly rare abilities. He was thought of as one of the greatest scholars of the city in the previous era, a time when Ostroveh was full of very learned men and great scholars, and when only a few of the respected residents were not immersed in the sea of the Talmud.

The acuity of Rabbi Pesach amazed many people, and exceeded any previously known dimensions in town. Rabbi Pesach was used to entering into the old study hall in the afternoon hours, which in those days was full of people studying, both young and old, bachelors and young married men. Each one of them would be studying by himself or with a partner. Others sat together at a table and studied, one the tractate of Ketubot, a second the tractate of Baba Batra, a third the tractate of Shabbat, a fourth Shulchan Aruch, a fifth would be looking into one of the books of the early [medieval] commentators, and so forth. Rabbi Pesach would go from one to the other, glance for a moment at the subject being studied, and would begin a sharp disquisition on it, linking it to the topic that the second person would be learning. He continued on to each of the students, weaving subject to subject, tractate to tractate, building a full structure with his acuity. The attendees of the study hall enjoyed

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this very much. But the group of Hassidim who were loyal to Kotsk objected to these Torah games. They claimed that this was not based on the study of Torah built on the foundations of truth, but rather on the coincidental and exceptional sharpness of Rabbi Pesach, and not on the truth that underlay those topics. Despite the objections of the Hassidim, Rabbi Pesach continued to give pleasure to himself and to the students with his games of acuity, which justifiably earned him the title as the sharpest of the scholars in Ostroveh.

One of the greatest of the Hassidim of Ger and one of the important people in our city was Rabbi David Ostrower, who was one of the veteran residents of Ostrow Mazowiecka. He was a great scholar, who knew the entire Talmud and the rabbinic decisors, both early and later, by heart. He was also the most diligent person in town. Day and night, summer and winter, he was seated and pursuing his studies diligently.

Much like his greatness in Torah was his devotion to Hassidism. He frequently visited Hassidic rebbes. In his youth it was to Rabbi Chanoch Henich of Alexander. And so told Rabbi David, “One time when I was in Alexander, there the rabbi and tzadik Rabbi Tzvi Hirsh of Tomashov [Tomaszow] was also staying. He was the right hand man and confidante of the aged rebbe of Kotsk. When Rabbi Chanoch Henich entered the study hall, all the Hassidim (myself included) ran towards him. Rabbi Tzvi Hirsh, who was standing alongside me, turned to me and said, ‘Listen, previously Hassidim were afraid and embarrassed to show their faces before their rebbe, and now they run to greet him?’”

After the death of the rebbe of Alexander, Rabbi David joined the community of the Hassidim of the rebbe Rabbi Aryeh Leib of Ger, author of the S'fat Emet. Rabbi David told the following story: “When I first came to Ger after the death of the rebbe of Alexander the rebbe of Ger said to me, ‘When someone opens a book on earth, they open a book for him in heaven as well.’”

Therefore Rabbi David always opened a Gemara with trepidation and fear of the Divine. It appeared on his face that he envisioned the opening of the gates of heaven before him. And thus in dread and fear, trembling and sweating, he sat down to learn day and night. He did not have much and was rather modest and weak–kneed. He was one of the first Hassidim who got by on very little. And even that he saw as an undeserved gift, as he was not worth very much at all.

For many years Rabbi David graced the house of the Hassidim of Ger. He was usually the last to leave the place. He always sat in his corner learning, without disturbing anyone, until he was called to the great yeshiva on high.

A Beautiful Branch

One of the grandest and most esteemed personages in the history of Hassidism was that of Rabbi David of Lelov^[17] [Lelow, Lelovo], one of the founders of Hassidism in Poland and among its spiritual giants. There is no end to the legends and heartwarming stories that about this great figure, who made a decisive contribution to the establishment of the image of Hassidism in Poland in general, and to Polish Jewry in particular. He was a popular personality, much like Rabbi Levi Yitzchak of Berditchev^[18] and Rabbi Moshe Leib of Sasov^[19], serving as a model for many generations.

Rabbi David was not a Hassidic rebbe. He did not create a dynasty as is usually understood in the Hassidic movement. But he was a tzadik who created long lists of wonderful organizations

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by means of his personality and his deeds. He was considered one of the leading students of the Seer of Lublin and of the Jew of Peshischa, the fathers of Hassidism in Poland and Galicia. But he was not just a usual student, but rather a pillar of fire that was elevated and stood out over his surroundings. Rabbi David of Lelov became a concept, a noun, an expression of the wholeness of a person and the wholeness of his characteristics.

Rabbi David's only son, Rabbi Moshe^[20], the son–in–law of the Holy Jew of Peshischa, did become a rebbe to the masses. But he left his exalted position and immigrated to the Land of Israel, along with his son and grandchildren. Of this esteemed family there remained in Poland only his son, Rabbi Avraham, the rabbi of Jozefow, and his grandson, Rabbi David. He, too, refused to become a rebbe, following in the footsteps of his illustrious grandfather. He was modest and shy. He sat and studied Torah and its good deeds. He was satisfied with his status as the rabbi of the small community of Jozefow, where he expounded on the Torah extensively.

Rabbi Avraham had a brilliant son by the name of Yerachmiel Yeshayahu^[21]. The super–human talents of the boy were apparent early in his youth. He was like a lime pit that never lost a single drop of water. It was sufficient for him to skim through a particular book quickly, and he immediately knew all the information in the book by heart, without having to dwell on a single word. His trenchant utterances became something of note. He was very sharp, and had a mind like a steel trap. As a boy he was able to plumb the depths of complex matters, and to review difficult and deep issues. Nothing was too difficult for this tiny genius from Jozefow, who progressed practically all on his own initiative, having received most of his knowledge from his father the gaon.

The name of the genius of Jozefow preceded him. His nobility and greatness of spirit he apparently inherited from his father and grandfather, and they integrated well with his abilities and his powerful thirst for knowledge. It was not long before Rabbi Yerachmiel Yeshayahu became a serious gaon. He was seen as a rising star in the firmament of the rabbinate in Poland. A bright future was seen for the young gaon, who captured the hearts of all the leading scholars of Torah with his brilliance, of the Hassidim with his conduct, and of the masses with his love for Jews and his superlative character traits.

When the young Rabbi Yerachmiel Yeshayahu decided soon after his marriage to accept a rabbinical position, which seemed to him to be an opportunity to devote himself to his studies and dedicate most of his time to Torah, there was no question that he would obtain a position in the rabbinate. Thus he was chosen at a very young age to be the rabbi of the community of Lukova and then the rabbi of Zdunska Wola.

Rabbi Yerachmiel Yeshayahu progressed in giant steps. His name preceded him throughout Poland as a model rabbi. Rabbis who were much older than he turned to him with very difficult questions. He was rightly thought of as a shining star in the skies of the Torah in Poland. His many admirers viewed him as becoming the outstanding gaon of the next generation, as the greatest rabbinic authority in this glorious Diaspora. Great hopes were pinned on him by the leading rabbis of the generation, who would take notice of him and seek his opinion. Authors would come to him with their books [to endorse], while young scholars would seek teachers' certificates from the famous rabbi of Lukova. His home became a meeting place for the wise men of the country, and he himself became a great locus of Torah. His legal rulings were accepted without question or challenge. He quickly became a classic decisor, who willingly and quickly replied to every inquirer with amazing clarity and breadth of knowledge. No question went unanswered. Even the most difficult questions were answered by him with amazing ease and simplicity. And it was all done without ambiguity or complexity, but briefly and logically.

But the great hopes of his many admirers did not come to pass. Divine will determined otherwise. Rabbi Yerachmiel Yeshayahu passed away at a very young age, even before he reached the age of attaining one's full stature^[22]. Two little orphans, a boy and a girl, were left behind, along with a young widow. The rabbis of Poland mourned greatly for this cedar that was cut down at the beginning of its efflorescence, for this lion who had disappeared

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leaving behind an empty space, even before he committed his knowledge to book form, and who was only at the very beginning of his flowering and fame.

His Youth and Biography

There was no limit to the love and affection of the gaon for his only son, whom he named for his sainted grandfather, Rabbi David of Lelov^[23]. As he sat on the seat as a dayan, in the very same room in which he taught and gave his lessons, Rabbi Yerachmiel Yeshayahu would hold his son on his knees, stroking his hair with tenderness and love. In his only son he saw his future, his spiritual heir, the one who would continue the golden thread.

But he did not live to educate and raise his son. As a small boy who did not yet understand much, David walked behind the coffin, surrounded by the concern and compassion of his father's many admirers. Many pampered the charming and bright–eyed little orphan, who became the favored child of the greatest rabbis of Poland. Many were concerned about him and made sure to nurture his abilities, which he had inherited from his great father. He was of noble spirit from the day he could understand things, and he had an expansive soul. His superior characteristics were apparent from the earliest days of his childhood. But above all else were his memory and his quick grasp of things that reminded one of his father, that thirst for knowledge and deep understanding that characterized him throughout what was also to be a short life.

The boy did not remember his great father. He was too small when his father passed away, too small to know his great and devoted personality. He did not reach the point where he could have absorbed anything from the teachings of his father, Rabbi Yerachmiel Yeshayahu. He had not yet had the privilege of studying with him, to hear words of Torah from the gaon of Lukova, who had loved him so much and who was concerned with him from the moment he first saw the light of day. Nevertheless the son inherited many of the characteristics of his father, those which were recognized in the gaon of Lukova in his youth and were now perceptible in the young Rabbi David, as he was just like him.

The son was of noble spirit in everything, in his studies and in his ways, in his logical thought and in his understanding of Torah. It was an innate nobility, a superior quality that is not self–conscious and becomes an integral part of the personality in which it resides. It was a nobility that was expressed in everything, in daily activities, in day–to–day ways of life, and in contact with people. Thus, like his father, he merited admiration not only because of his knowledge or his status, but more so because of his personality, which few like him had, even in those shining glory days of Polish Jewry.

Rabbi David was educated in the home of his widowed mother, under the supervision of the giants of Torah in Poland. But this pampering did not negatively affect his thinking or his characteristics. The fact that he was an orphan also had its influence in him. He grew up quickly, seeming like a person much older than his actual age, serious, introverted. He plumbed the depths of every problem and issue and loathed superficiality. As a very young man Rabbi David was considered a person who was fully developed in his personal characteristics and his actions, without blemish, and a great person in his knowledge of Torah and his behavior.

He had inherited his phenomenal memory from his brilliant father. And like his father, too, he was a lime pit that never lost a drop [of water]. As for his diligence, there was no limit. He sat and studied eighteen hours per day, researching, digging deep, first mostly studying Talmud and the decisors. But during the course of years he did not leave any branch of Jewish learning unexplored. Every new book was precious to him. His thirst for knowledge only increased over time. He did not leave any book that came his way unread, whether studied in depth or merely leafed through. In a few years Rabbi David became a veritable well of knowledge, a living encyclopedia.

Rabbi David was eighteen years of age when he married the daughter of one of the wealthy Hassidim of Ostrow Mazowiecka, Rabbi Eliyahu Lau^[24] (may God avenge his blood), one of the important people of the city. His wealthy father–in–law, a lover of Torah, promised him that he would support him and would provide for all of his needs for the rest of his life. This was a dream for Rabbi David, who desired to dedicate his entire life to Torah, without distraction, without

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financial worries and daily burdens. He was free of any need to be concerned with secular matters and the material world.

There was no limit to the good fortune that Rabbi David had without any worry, so that he could lead a life of Torah in Ostroveh. How fortunate was this man who was able to continue his studies, who was able to devote himself entirely to a life of Torah. In a small room reserved for him in the house of his rich father–in–law, that wealthy and great man, alongside walls lined with books, he sat and studied. He sat and thought about Torah day and night. He progressed day by day and became a wonderful gaon in the entire Torah.

Rabbi David did not aspire to the rabbinate, to authority, to any official position. On the contrary, he sought to escape and hide from the gaze of people. The four cubits of the Halacha provided him with all he needed, a higher reward. He aspired only for the Torah and to study it. And he attained this, and the more he studied the more his diligence increased, seeking to plumb the very depths of an issue, to clarify it and to clear it up, to swim forever in the great and gigantic sea of the Talmud.

A Public Figure and an Exceptional Educator

Ostrow Mazowiecka had served as a Hassidic stronghold for many years. It was a very weighty center for the Hassidim of Ger. It was in this city that lived the Gaon Rabbi Ben–Zion Rabinowitz, one of the greatest Hassidim of Poland and one of the last of the Mohicans of the early and great Kotsk era of Hassidism. He created in this city a kernel of enthusiastic Hassidim, young people who were great in their knowledge of the Torah and who were also activists. Rabbi Ben–Zion led them, drew them close to the sources of Hassidism, and brought them into the precincts of holy work.

Since Rabbi David's arrival in Ostroveh, the Ger Hassidim in Ostroveh, headed by Rabbi Ben–Zion, had sought to attract the promising young genius. Slowly they succeeded in bringing Rabbi David into their circle, until he became one of the pillars of the group.

He began making his way to Ger, to the court of the great rebbe, there to perfect his Hassidism and his holy work. The rebbe Avraham Mordechai, the greatest of the rebbes of his generation, tried to bring him close and to love him. Thus, he became an enthusiastic Hassid and one of the best of the young men at Ger. A whole new world was revealed to Rabbi David, a world of pure holiness and of total effort on behalf of God, a world of self–sacrifice and of true exaltation. Hassidim was well absorbed by Rabbi David, who was already full of Torah and ethics when he came to warm himself by its light. It was as if Hassidism attached its wings to the young gaon.

News of the brilliant young man, who was cordial and big–hearted, reached far and wide. This former favored child of the greatest rabbis of the Torah became widely known. His Hassidic friends and acquaintances spoke of him with awe and admiration. By their very nature and essence they tried to negate this–worldly things, and did not praise people very much either, but this time they went beyond their usual limits. They honored and admired Rabbi David. They elevated him and praised him, whether they were following in the footsteps of their rabbi, rebbe Avraham Mordechai, or whether it was because of the unique characteristics of Rabbi David himself. His great personal charm, his ways that were full of grace and light, that honored the Divine name in public, acquired for him a much respected position among the great Torah scholars of Poland, and a most visible place among the younger tier of greats in the country.

His extensive and universal knowledge in all aspects of Judaism; his profound understanding of all the problems that came across his path; his big eyes that radiated kindness, love and great understanding; his heartfelt and gracious approach, all created entire legends around this young man, who flew away from any honor or publicity, from any public position or official post, like an arrow from a bow. The longings of Rabbi David were not for a respected rabbinic post, for rabbinical honors, or for widespread fame. He sought to escape to the four cubits of the Halacha, to his small room in the house of his wealthy father–in–law where, amidst walls and shelves laden with many books, he found his soul, his true self.

Responsibility to the Public and to the Individual

And much like his thirst for Torah was powerful, so, too,

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was his feeling of responsibility both towards the individual and the public, responsibility to the Jewish people at large and to the younger generation of Jews. No one better than Rabbi David understood the soul of the young Jew in Poland, and the young Jewish soul altogether, despite the fact that he was totally enveloped within the four cubits of the Torah. The principle that says that you can understand better from outside than from within proved itself in Rabbi David, a man who was beyond the concerns of the lives of young and old alike, a man who never had any contact with daily life or with grim reality, yet who nevertheless understood that reality and that environment better than others, plumbing the depths of the soul of every young man and woman.

His concern for the future of the nation and its character brought him to the Agudat Yisrael movement, to which he was attracted heart and soul, becoming one of its most loyal soldiers and officers in Poland. Here as well, as in other areas, Rabbi David fled from any official or honorific position. He refused to accept any official post or honorary position within the movement's central body, or in its local branch. He vigorously pushed aside any attempt to be elected by it to any institution whatsoever. Nevertheless he stood firmly at its side when it came to practical work of the Agudat Yisrael movement. This man, for whom the study of Torah was precious above all else, did not hesitate to defer his study and to use his time to speak on behalf of Agudat Yisrael, to debate its opponents, to give a lecture to the girls' branch of Agudat Yisrael or to the youth arm of Agudat Yisrael.

He devoted much of his time to develop the ideology of Agudat Yisrael, to broadening the boundaries of its vision, and to strengthening its foundations. Thus he inadvertently became one of the ideologues of Agudat Yisrael. Like his teacher, the rebbe of Ger, he came to see in Agudat Yisrael the instrumentality of salvation for the Jewish people in the difficult days of its Diaspora. He did not see in the movement a material crutch or a means of personal success or of financial gain, but rather a pure idea, holy and ennobled, that was likely to save the Jew and accompany him on his difficult path. This idea was that of an organized Torah life, whether in the life of the community or in the life of the individual.

Rabbi David was a gifted psychologist and a teacher of great skill by his very nature. By means of casual conversation he was able to bring about revolutionary change in the life of his interlocutor. His influence on youth and the young, who were attracted to him by his charm, was enormous. His lectures and speeches always engendered many echoes, for he knew how to give expression to the deepest and most original thoughts in a light and attractive manner, simple enough to be understood by a child. Because of his abilities, they never gave him a moment's rest. They pressured him often to give lectures to teachers and youth, or to community leaders and activists. He unwillingly had to devote some of his time to the supervision of orthodox educational institutions in his area, both as to the curriculum and the methods of teaching and pedagogy. Rabbi David became the favored choice of the Torah–oriented youth movements of Agudat Yisrael, both in his own immediate area as well as further afield.

The man became a symbol. He was never just one who spoke but did not act, but rather he was one who acted as well. He was a man of character without blemish, who never got angry and never engaged in frivolous talk. He always received people with kindness, with love and devotion, with a genuine concern for the good of all, with a hearty and charming smile always seen on his lips. He was always ready to help and to fulfill any request or wish that was possible to fulfill. For every question, even the most complex, he had a clear and correct answer at hand.

The Spiritual Guide of the yeshiva of the Sages of Lublin

In Lublin Rabbi Meir Shapira had built the grand yeshiva of the Sages of Lublin^[25]. This yeshiva enrolled many exceptional students of the Torah, diligent and brilliant, who came to study Torah at the famed yeshiva of the Sages of Lublin. Among them were students from Galicia, the grandsons of famous rebbes, giants of the Torah, as well as Polish–born students, some of whom were sons of industrialists and wealthy merchants.

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There were young men from all the religious streams in the country. The best of all the Torah–oriented youth in Poland were brought together to study. This institution required an appropriate personality who was both well versed in the Torah and a gifted educator, who possessed both great personal charm and broad–based ideas in order to create in this large yeshiva a single, unified atmosphere of Torah as well as a harmonious relationship among the students.

The late Rabbi Meir Shapira of blessed memory passed away at a young age. His loyal assistants who had worked with dedication to set up the yeshiva were now faced with a critical problem. There was an urgent need for a spiritual director for the yeshiva, someone of unusual personality, someone who could crystallize the yeshiva into a unified body, at least within the yeshiva itself. Serving as heads of the yeshiva, as the instructors, were the Gaon Rabbi Tzvi Aryeh Frumer^[26] from Koziglov [Kozieglowy] and the Gaon Rabbi Aryeh Leib Landau from Kolobel [Kolbiel]. Overseeing the spiritual side were some of the greatest geonim of Poland, the rebbe of Boyan, Rabbi Moshe^[27], the Gaon Rabbi Menachem Ziemba^[28], and others. But these men came to Lublin infrequently. There was need of a personality who would take up residence within the yeshiva, who would actually take part in the life of the yeshiva, and who would serve as father and teacher to hundreds of young men, among whom were those who excelled in their knowledge of Torah, extraordinary young men of understanding and substantial knowledge.

Meanwhile there had occurred a very serious change in the status of Rabbi David Mintzberg of Ostrow Mazowiecka. His father–in–law, who had hitherto supplied all his needs, had suffered catastrophic losses, and could no longer provide for his illustrious son–in–law, his wife and their seven young daughters^[29]. The good times of plenty, the days in which Rabbi David could devote himself entirely to Torah and Hassidism, were over. He rejected all proposals of appointments to the rabbinate. Such an appointment was not acceptable to him. In his mind such a position would require him not to be at one with himself. The life of business and work were also foreign to him. He hardly had ever gone out into the marketplace, and had no idea what business was all about.

And even though earning a living with one's hands now seemed to be the most acceptable option, on the other hand he now also understood how fortunate he had personally been in the past insofar as any anxiety he may have had of getting involved in anything but the most pure undertakings were then unnecessary. But now his aversion to anything to do with money would not make it easy for him to support his large family.

So when the heads of the yeshiva of the Sages of Lublin decided to “recruit” Rabbi David, he responded positively to their request willingly. This position was close to his heart and to his inclinations. To educate young men for a life of Torah, Hassidism and ethics, for true wholeness and good morals, this was his life's work. For their part the great scholars of Poland who headed the yeshiva of the Sages of Lublin saw in him the right man for the job. His extraordinary scholarship, his amazing knowledge would likely enhance his standing in the eyes of the students and guarantee his success. His abilities as a gifted educator, and the fact that he was a pure Hassid, and that he had a blemish–free personality, all assured his complete success.

The Gaon Rabbi David Mintzberg carried out this difficult task wholeheartedly. From the first day when his feet first stepped into the enormous yeshiva building in Lublin up until the Nazis locked the gates of the building and devastated it, the spiritual director had held complete sway over the hearts of its hundreds of students. He never used any coercion. He never raised his voice or threatened a student. He never relied on the administration of the yeshiva or utilized any official methods. All these were foreign to his nature. He viewed all these as non–educational means.

He never flaunted his superiority over the students. He worked to remove all barriers between him and even the youngest of the students. He walked among them as if he were just another one of the guys, a somewhat older one perhaps, but devoted to them with all his heart. One could open up one's heart to him and confide in him any secret. Students would say, “If you tell Rabbi David things, it is like you buried them in the ground. He would never divulge their content. Rabbi David would never mention them, he would not use

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them. And it did not matter whether they were important things, provocative things or just plain things.”

The Gaon Rabbi David Mintzberg left his family in his house in Ostroveh. He sent his entire salary every month to his wife, while he lived the life of the yeshiva, living among the students, sharing their concerns, their joys and their sorrows, as if they were not his students but his own sons. Only on holidays did he return to his home or to his rabbi, the rebbe of Ger.

With rare wisdom and with great love and ability he penetrated into the hearts of hundreds of students and implanted in them the aspiration for wholeness and ascension, the strong desire to study Torah and to meticulously observe the commandments. He always knew how to find the exact right moment, so as not to impose on the students. He did not give public lectures on ethics, nor did he preside over the table on the Sabbath and holidays. He dealt with the students on an individual basis, with each one privately, and without official sanctions, and not at pre–set times.

The decided majority of the students came from Hassidic families. They belonged to all of the sects of Hassidism. Only about half came from the Hassidim of the rebbe of Ger, while others were adherents of dozens of other rebbes. On this basis there occasionally developed controversies among the students of the yeshiva. More than once the relations among them became strained. Rabbi David, with great understanding and symbolism, succeeded in overcoming these problems, which occasionally harmed the day–to–day life of the yeshiva. Rabbi David himself was counted among the enthusiastic adherents of the rebbe of Ger, but in the yeshiva he knew how to elevate himself and the students above the differences of the various sects of Hassidism. Slowly but surely he managed to put the way of life of the yeshiva on a different track, one of tolerance and respect for one another, of respecting the customs and traditions of others and of mutual love and an attitude of acceptance towards all. All his work was undertaken with great patience, every step was thought out in advance, planned to the last detail. And all was done quietly, with amazing patience and great devotion.

His work did not go unrewarded. For their part the students repaid his love with their love and his devotion with theirs. They were prepared to do anything for him. Their loyalty to their teacher and guide had no limits. One always felt fortunate when Rabbi David turned to him and asked him to do something.

For the Sanctification of God's Name

When the skies over Poland began to cloud over, and the Nazis began their final preparations for conquering the country, a great fear hovered over Polish Jewry. One's heart could feel the bitterness in one's soul, and the masses felt that difficult and bitter days were coming whose exact nature was difficult to predict. The administration of the yeshiva of the Sages of Lublin decided to send the students home “until the fury passes”. Only a handful of students, who had no homes to go back to, remained at the yeshiva.

Rabbi David did not abandon the great ship of Torah during this stormy time. He did not return home, but rather worked to help find safe havens for those orphan students who had no homes to go back to. The great building of the yeshiva was immediately closed by the Nazi invaders. Rabbi David worked for months to enable the small group of students who had remained in Lublin to continue their studies in secret and in a regular manner.

The Jews of Ostroveh were expelled from their homes. The city became a border town between Russia and Germany. After the eastern parts of Poland were absorbed into Soviet Russia, most of the residents crossed the border and turned to Russia. Rabbi David also crossed into Russia, where he joined his family.

After a short time the masses of Jews in these areas were expelled to the distant tundra of Siberia. Among those who were expelled were the wife and the seven daughters of Rabbi David. He remained in the Lithuanian city of Lachva [Lakhva, Lachwa, part of Poland before the war, today in Belarus], still immersed in Torah

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and good works, sending packages of food and clothing to his family, who were starving in that great wasteland^[30].

The letters of Rabbi David from this period, in which he was wandering alone and lonely among Jews who hardly recognized him, far from his family and his students, and in which his fellow Jews were being rounded up in their communities and being killed, are full of hope and faith and elevation of the soul. It was clear that the man was going higher and higher in those days of pain and suffering.

In these difficult days, when Rabbi David was wandering around alone and lonely in an environment he hardly recognized any more, when his heart was full and pain and yearning, fear and sadness, the greatness of his spirit and the powerful resources hidden in his soul came to their fullest expression. There are those who question him for not having done everything he could to join his family in their exile in Siberia. But he was not able to do this. He apologized for having stayed in a settled area, among people, where he could obtain food to send to his family and to his acquaintances to save them from death by starvation.

Indescribable spiritual bravery is manifest in his letters from this bitter and difficult period of his life. He overcame in these days of anger and rage even more than in the good days. He became a veritable torch of holiness and purity. “To learn from pain, to worship God when you are drowning in sorrows, there is nothing loftier than that” [he wrote]. Or, “Your soul cannot attain in the good years what it can achieve in a short time in bitter days.”

In other letters to his students this giant of the spirit called upon them to invest themselves with every fiber of their being in their studies of Torah and in good works. “After all, these days were created for the purpose of having us worship God. In these days there is no opportunity for us to make our fortunes, to build houses, to assure our material future, or to provide a pleasant life. If we examine matters it will become clear that thunder was created in order to straighten out the crookedness of the heart, that these difficult days were created so that we may overcome and rise above them, that we would forget about all the vanities of this world and purify and sanctify ourselves in anticipation of better days.”

And so the difficult and oppressive days under Russian occupation passed for him. He saw to it that his loved ones would not perish of starvation at a time when absolute evil hovered over the earth. Yet, he learned much in this period. He plumbed and observed some of the secrets of the Torah, thereby escaping to a world that was all good. “Even in hell one can also taste the tastes of the Garden of Eden….”

The times of pain and suffering were nearing their end. The Nazi monsters launched a war against Soviet Russia. They quickly conquered vast territories. They captured little Lachva, where they swept up the local Jews and many refugees. From the first day of their arrival they sowed death and destruction on this land rife with pain. Somehow Rabbi David still managed to send a number of letters from this terrible captivity to some of his students and admirers. He told how it was impossible for a Jew to go out of his house for weeks at a time. He found a small refuge, with a narrow roof. There was once again no possibility of his aiding his family members, to prevent their starvation and pain. Rabbi David prepared himself for what was to come. He had no illusions about the future.

One of the survivors of Lachva, which was destroyed, who was himself saved from the flames, writes in First Ghetto to Revolt: Lachva, “From the day of his arrival the Gaon Rabbi David Mintzberg, may God avenge his blood, assumed the role as the spiritual leader of the Jewish population of the town. He was especially concerned with help and succor for the families of the Jewish refugees from central Poland. As a great Torah scholar and a wise man he became a guide and adviser to the Jewish council. The council considered every decree and tribulation that befell them. The Gaon Rabbi David would provide guidance to the head of the council. The local rabbis, Rabbi Eliezer Lichtenstein and Rabbi Chaim Zalman Osherovitz, would meet with him as well and would come up with ideas on how to deal with the problems and mitigate the brunt of the evil decrees. With his ideas and advice he served as a source of great encouragement and help to Mr. Dov Lopatin, head

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of the council and the official representative of the Jewish community, more than once saving the Jewish community that was confined to a ghetto.

On the night of the twenty–first of Elul 5702 [September 2, 1942], the ghetto was surrounded by cadres of armed murderers, consisting of companies of the SS and their murderous assistants. In reply to the question of Mr. Dov Lopatin, head of the Jewish council, as to why there were so many soldiers, the officers of murder at the police station said that they were there to eliminate the prisoners of the Lachva ghetto. He added, “out of the goodness of his heart”, that thirty selected Jews, headed by Mr. Dov Lopatin, head of the council of trustees, would be left alive. Mr. Dov Lopatin, may God avenge his blood, replied, “You will not kill us piecemeal. Either we all remain alive, or we will all be killed.”

Lopatin and some of the other council members went back into the ghetto. The murderers rested a bit before carrying out the “aktion”. They had just returned from eliminating the Jews of the Kozhan–Horodok [Kozhan–Gorodok] and Luniniec [Luninyets, today in Belarus]. And they had not eaten for six hours.

The murderers prepared for the action, while the heads of the Jews went about implementing their own plan, which had been devised in advance, as soon as it had become clear that there was no escape from total destruction. The adults and youth gathered in the section of the ghetto alongside the house of Zeev Rochczyn. At the orders of the committee, at the head of whose planners and advisers stood the Gaon Rabbi David Mintzberg, the Jews began to set the houses of the ghetto on fire and to consign to the flames the little of their property they still had, so that the murderers would not both kill the Jews and inherit their assets. Dov Lopatin was the first, and entered the house of Zalman Cheifetz and set it ablaze, according to plan. Dense clouds of smoke covered the ghetto. House after house was set on fire. The German murderers, with the aid of the local Polish police, went into action. They entered the ghetto and ordered the Jews, who had gathered according to their plan, to disperse and to return to their homes, some of which had in the meantime become plumes of fire.

At that moment Yisrael Darevsky, may God avenge his blood, one of the members of the Jewish council, ran into the house of Zelig Dolgopiti and set it afire from within. He exited and flames shot out from it. A German policeman, who happened to be standing there and saw what was happening, drew his pistol and shot him dead on the spot. Chaos erupted in the community. Yitzchak Rochczyn jumped on the German and split his head open with an axe, killing him. A single bullet hit Yitzchak Rochczyn and killed him. Then Asher Cheifetz attacked a second German policeman that was quickly moving towards the group of Jews, and he, too, split his head open with an axe. A bullet struck Asher Cheifetz, may God avenge his blood, who fell on the spot. Asher's brother, Moshe Leib, removed a pistol from another bloody German dog, and began to direct fire towards the murderers who had gathered near the ghetto's fence. Young Chaim Cheifetz ran towards the gate, instantly overcoming the surprised German policeman and killed him, then opened the gates. The Nazi “heroes” fell back in confusion. The Jews pulled themselves together. They began to attack the nearby fence and gate. They broke out into the marketplace and ran for their lives. The murderers quickly began to run up to balconies and to the roofs and rained withering fire down on the escapees. Many Jews ran to the forests and marshes in the area, but most were killed. Hundreds of corpses of the fallen were piled up in the marketplace and nearby alleys.

At the head of the group of people who stood by the gate of the ghetto, the Gaon Rabbi David Mintzberg, the Gaon Rabbi Eliezer Lichtenstein, and the Gaon Rabbi Chaim Zalman Osherovitz, wrapped in their prayer shawls, cried out in anguish and blood, Sh'ma Yisrael [“Hear, O Israel”]. Many people then began to whisper the final prayers of confession.

The holy Gaon Rabbi David Mintzberg had come there in the shrouds that he had prepared for himself, over which he wore a white kittel [prayer robe]. He came with head held high. He face shone and his eyes burned. He was prepared to sanctify God's name in public. Within an hour he had fallen dead from a murderer's bullet^[31].

The Gaon Rabbi Yerucham Fishel Dan was one of the closest students of the Gaon Rabbi Meir Dan Plotzky during the years of his residence in Ostrow Mazowiecka. He was sharp and possessed rare abilities that enabled him to grasp things quickly

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and with great diligence. Rabbi Yerucham Fishel Dan was considered a prodigy, and was ordained by the greatest rabbis when he was only sixteen.

Rabbi Yerucham Fishel was among those younger fellows in Ostroveh who first set up the group of young men among the Hassidim of Ger that sat night and day in the house of Ger and studied. He frequently traveled to Ger, to the rebbe, and worked on pure Hassidism with other young men his age.

From the house of Ger he found his way to the Agudat Yisrael movement, and from a young age began to work on behalf of that party, imbued as he was with the Agudist ideology. He quickly became one of the most outstanding and devoted leaders of Agudat Yisrael, prepared to do whatever was needed on behalf of his movement. He was soon elected to the central committee of Agudat Yisrael in Poland and traveled frequently on missions on behalf of his movement. No assignment was too difficult for him if it had the potential to advance the cause of Agudat Yisrael on some level.

At quite a young age he was selected as the Rabbi of Kosov [Kosow Lacki], and remained in his post up until the last day of the existence of that veteran community. He left Ostrow Mazowiecka with the members of his family. Even while serving as the rabbi of Kosov he did not abandon his loyalty to Agudat Yisrael or his adherence to the Hassidism of Ger.

With the outbreak of the Holocaust he was exiled with his family from Kosov and landed up in Slonim. He refused to save his own life but rather remained in the valley of death with many of his flock. He was killed by the Germans when they liquidated the Slonim ghetto.

Among the outstanding members of the Hassidim of Ger was the Gaon Rabbi Moshe Goldblatt, one of the great scholars in Ostroveh. A native of Wyszkow, he came there after his marriage to the daughter of Aaron Bengelsdorf, a prominent citizen of Ostrow Mazowiecka. At a young age he stood out thanks to his acuity and his greatness in Torah. Since the time he was of age, he never began morning prayers until he had studied three pages of Talmud in depth along with commentaries. As a young man he wrote a high quality interpretation of Baal Henefesh [Master of the Soul] of the Rabad [acronym for Rabbi Abraham ben David, ca. 1125–1198], which remained in manuscript form and was never published.

From the time of his arrival in Ostroveh Rabbi “Mosheleh” was counted among the students of Rabbi Ben–Zion, who very much drew him in and liked him. Rabbi Ben–Zion saw him as one of the best of his students, outstanding and distinguished in everything. When secularist circles in Ostroveh proposed to establish a Jewish gymnasium [secular high school] in the town, and organized a gathering to that end, Rabbi Ben–Zion negated the idea, and went to the meeting place accompanied by his beloved and great student, Rabbi Mosheleh, to speak harshly against the organizers and their aspirations. The attendees of the meeting were about to pounce on him angrily. Rabbi Ben–Zion, who was already old and frail but respected by all, stood before them, and reprimanded those who would insult Rabbi Mosheleh. “Do you know who my student is?” He raised his voice and praised his student heartily. For lack of alternative, the organizers had to forego their proposal.

When it was suggested to Rabbi Mosheleh that he serve as dayan and motz [moreh tzedek, literally instructor in justice], he refused for reasons known only to him. But he did agree to move to Warsaw and to serve for a time as an instructor in the yeshiva, Metivta. He taught Torah to many until the outbreak of the Holocaust. Rabbi Mosheleh was killed in Trawniki along with his wife and their six children, to which he was sent by the Nazi murderers from the Warsaw ghetto as part of their destruction of Polish Jewry.

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Rabbi Avraham Yaakov Friedman

One of the great scholars of Ostroveh in the last generation before the Holocaust, the pride of the last of the Mitnagdim in the city, was Rabbi Avraham Yaakov Friedman, one of the important congregants of the new beit midrash and one the town's leaders. He was both a great scholar and a community activist, a wealthy man and a propagator of Torah, a throwback to the period when there were in Jewish communities in the Diaspora superlative scholars that were also successful businessmen who combined Torah and prominence.

Rabbi Avraham Yaakov was born in the town of Nowogrod near Lomza into a respected family of excellent lineage. His father was considered a sharp person and the leading scholar in and around his town. At a young age Rabbi Avraham Yaakov was enrolled in the Volozhin yeshiva, where he was one of the students of the Gaon Rabbi Chaim Soloveichik, the rabbi of Brest–Litovsk, who was serving at the time as the dean of the Volozhin yeshiva. He stood out particularly for his acuity, but he did not neglect knowledge of the substance either, nor the learning necessary to acquire such substance.

After his marriage to a young woman from Ostrow Mazowiecka, the daughter of Nachman Goldberg^[32], he settled there and became one of the leading scholars of the town. He refused to use his knowledge of Torah for material purposes. He turned down rabbinical positions and any other sacred occupations. He preferred to try his hand at business, while still devoting most of his time to Torah. For decades Rabbi Avraham Yaakov sat and studied Torah with great dedication, while taking off a few hours every day to engage in business and communal affairs.

Rabbi Avraham Yaakov was the scion of a long line of Mitnagdim, who did not adopt Hassidism. But on the other hand he got along with the Hassidim and never got involved in the conflict between Hassidim and Mitnagdim. Rabbi Avraham Yaakov was a practical man, who liked to delve deeply into an issue and examine its roots and its raison d'etre. He thus saw the conflict between Hassidim and Mitnagdim as a legacy of the past that had already disappeared. In its place there now stood new movements, secular and anti–religious ones, which arose in the Jewish community in the last generation before the Holocaust. He joined Agudat Yisrael and did much on its behalf.

Since Nachman Goldberg had left his position as head of the community during World War I, Rabbi Avraham Yaakov was chosen in his place, and he served until 5684 [1923–1924] as head of the community. With his encouragement and active support, the community chose the Gaon Rabbi Meir Dan [Plotzky] as chief of the rabbinical court. On behalf of the community he went to Dvart, the previous place of service of the rabbi before Ostrow Mazowiecka. Once he saw the unique qualities of Rabbi Plotzky, he did all he could to get him to be chosen.

But Rabbi Avraham Yaakov stood out most in relation to his acuity and his superlative learning. There was no lack of high level scholars, of outstanding knowledgeable people in Ostroveh in the last generation before the Holocaust. And whereas in the previous generation some of them were concentrated in the Mitnagdic camp and some in the Hassidic camp, in the immediate generation before the Holocaust the number of great Torah scholars in the Mitnagdic community declined. Rabbi Avraham Yaakov, who served as their spokesman and advocate for their cause, elevated the status of that community as a gaon of the Torah and perpetuated the glorious tradition of the renowned Volozhin yeshiva.

He continued to propagate Torah and to give his lectures in the new synagogue, and it was a pleasure to hear him. He explained even the most difficult and complex subject with simplicity and great ability, as he led the listeners via his teachings into the depth of the issues with the hand of an artist.

With the outbreak of the Holocaust, Rabbi Avraham Yaakov Friedman escaped to the Soviet zone of occupation. Weak and ill, he reached Slonim with the masses of the refugees from his city. But a serious illness struck him and on the 29^th day of Cheshvan, 5700 [November 11, 1939], on the very day that the last Jews of Ostroveh were killed, just two months after the outbreak of the Holocaust, he returned his soul to its maker, as a war refugee in Slonim.

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Rabbi Avraham Yitzchak Bromberg

One of the important congregants of the old beit midrash in Ostroveh was Rabbi Avraham Yitzhak Bromberg. He was a learned man who frequented many regular lectures, but also was involved in business with the help of his wife, Mrs. Feige Zissel [Bromberg].

Rabbi Avraham Yitzhak died when he was still quite young, leaving behind his widow and eight young children, six sons and two daughters^[33]. After the period of mourning, the young widow gathered up her strength and began once again to run her large household and to educate her offspring in the ways of Torah. It was soon apparent that Feige Zissel was an astute and successful businesswoman. In a few years she had amassed a considerable fortune. Her enterprises branched out all across Poland. She became the wealthiest woman in all of Ostroveh and its nearby and outlying areas. She dealt with the owners of some of the largest enterprises, while her holdings in Poland and her overall wealth was estimated to be in vast sums.

Feige Zissel married off all of her sons and daughters into other very wealthy and extremely respected families in Poland. Her oldest son, Rabbi Dan, an outstanding scholar and public persona, was the son–in–law of Hershel Mendelson, one of the richest and most respected men in Warsaw. For many years he served as the cantor on the High Holy Days in the old beit midrash in Ostroveh. During World War I he moved with his extensive family to Warsaw, where he died.

Her second son, Rabbi Chaim Mordechai, was considered a well rounded person. He was a Judaic scholar who also knew German, Russian and Polish perfectly. A successful, wealthy merchant, he was the son–in–law of Rabbi Ziskind Shachor of Biala. Her third son, Rabbi Yaakov, was the son–in–law of the richest Jew in Kutno, the Hassidic Rabbi Yehuda Meir Lipsker, a Hassid and a scholar, who was well known for his great wisdom. For decades he ran a bank. In his later years he immigrated to Jerusalem, where he died in the year 5695 [1935].

Her fourth son, Rabbi Zeev Wolf Bromberg, was very successful in business and was one of the wealthiest Hassidim. The fifth son, Rabbi Tzvi Hirsh, was the son–in–law of Rabbi Leib Schechter, a wealthy manufacturer from Lodz. He was a scholar and ardent Hassid, who was known as an honest and reliable man. The youngest of the brothers, Rabbi Natan Bromberg, was the son–in–law of Rabbi Chaim Shidlovsky, a wealthy Hassid from Piotrkow. Rabbi Natan resided for many years with his large family in Ostroveh, but later moved to Warsaw. He was a Hassid and a publicly–oriented person as well. He was among the most devoted and active members of the Agudat Yisrael movement in Poland. He represented his movement as an officer of the Warsaw Jewish community.

Feige Zissel married off her daughters to the sons of highly respected families as well. Her first son–in–law was Rabbi Nachman Goldberg, one of the most important and respected residents of Ostrow Mazowiezka. Up until World War I he had served as head of the community. Her second son–in–law was Rabbi Shlomo Reichman of Czestochowa, one of the most important and richest Hassidim of that city.

Rabbi Avraham Yitzchak Bromberg and his wife Feige Zissel were among the opponents of Hassidism, but all their children became loyal Ger Hassidim thanks to the influence of the Hassidic Gaon Rabbi Ben– Zion [Rabinowitz], head of the Ger Hassidim in Ostroveh.

Feige Zissel was widowed as a young woman. She invested her energy and talents in the education of her children, in the running of her large and diverse businesses, and in her household, which she famously ran in a model fashion. Her great wealth was matched by her lavish charitable giving. When a yeshiva was established in Ostroveh, Feige Zissel built a beautiful building in which to house it from her own funds. When a fire broke out and consumed that building, this noble and generous woman did not hesitate but a moment and immediately donated

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the entire amount necessary to rebuild it. And it stood on that very spot until the horrific Holocaust. Hundreds of students of Torah had studied there.

Her home was totally open to any poor person or wandering visitor. Every Monday and Thursday the entire student body of the yeshiva ate in her home. Tens of Jewish soldiers and needy guests graced the table in her large home every Sabbath and holiday. Large numbers of paupers streamed to her house and received food to satisfy their needs. The devoted widow established and ran a renowned home all by herself for decades, with her sons and daughters and sons–in–law and daughters–in–law around her. And from these children there grew many extensive families in Poland. She was full of initiative and energy, and was never deterred from undertaking any project or work.

Feige Zissel was the granddaughter of Rabbi Dan Landau of Plotsk [Plock], the famous shtadlan^[34] in his day, and father–in–law of the Hassidic rebbe Rabbi Avraham of Ciechanow^[35], and father–in–law and step–father of the Gaon Rabbi Zeev Wolf Lipschitz, the rabbi of Ozorkow. Rabbi Dan was a man of outstanding attributes and characteristics. He knew many languages, including French. When Napoleon Bonaparte, the French emperor, passed through Poland on his march to conquer Russia, he camped for a number of days in Plotsk. There was not a single person in that city, except for Rabbi Dan, who knew French. Rabbi Dan secretly met with the ruler, who borrowed ten thousand gold thalers from him, and received a signed note attesting to the receipt of that sum from Rabbi Dan.

Napoleon failed in his mission, and was forced to retreat back to France with the remnants of his army. It was not long before he was removed from his throne by the very nations that fought him, Britain and Russia, Prussia and Austria, and who replaced him with a king of the Bourbon line. The new French government did not recognize the borrowings of Napoleon. Thus, Rabbi Dan became impoverished. He lost his wealth and was forced to earn his living from the community coffers as a shtadlan.

Feige Zissel had inherited the loan document signed by the emperor. The Bourbons once again were no longer the rulers of France, while the name of Napoleon was once again on the lips of the French people. Feige Zissel decided to try to collect the debt from the government of France. She engaged a lawyer, who made his way to Paris. He presented a formal claim on her behalf to a French court, which rejected the plea and which accepted the position of the French government that had specifically decided not to honor the debts of Napoleon.

During World War I, when the Russians conspired against the Jews in general and the rich Jews in particular, Feige Zissel moved from Ostroveh to Warsaw, where most of her children now lived. She was eighty–seven when she arrived in Warsaw, but her mind was as lucid and bright as ever, and she was still full of energy and action. She remained in Warsaw even after World War I with her children, grandchildren and great–grandchildren. She lived to the incredible ripe old age of ninety–six, when she died in the year 5683 [1923] in Warsaw.

He was born in Ostrow Mazowiecka to his father, the Hassidic rebbe Rabbi Yosef of Amshinov, during the period when Rabbi Yosef was the chief rabbi of the city. He was raised and educated in Ostroveh. Even when he was young, his characteristics of fear of God and fear of sin stood out, while a streak of charm adorned his noble face, as a son of such an outstanding family. It was said that he resembled his great–grandfather, the first rebbe of the house of Amshinov, Rabbi Yaakov David, who was the first son of the old rebbe, the famous Rabbi Yitzhak of Warka [Vurka, Vorki]. His hair was as black as coal; his side locks were curled and added the beauty of the ages to his image; his large velvety eyes glowed. Wherever he went he aroused attention. Everyone who passed him, Jew or non–Jew, was interested in knowing who this beautiful, elegant young boy was.

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The dynasty of rebbes of the house of Amshinov maintained its long tradition of a passionate love for the people of Israel, while at the same time being careful not to cause any harm or pain to anyone. The young Rabbi Yaakov David adhered to this tradition with all his being, full of positive characteristics like a pomegranate, educated and brought up to continue this tradition of generations. Already at a young age he memorized the Orech Chaim volume of the Shulchan Aruch. He studied diligently and enthusiastically, and also worked hard on his Hassidism as soon as he was mature enough.

When his father, Rabbi Yosef, left the seat of the rabbinate in Ostrow Mazowiecka in order to succeed his father Rabbi Yosef [sic Menachem] of Amshinov, Rabbi Yaakov David left Ostroveh with him. But until his last day Rabbi Yaakov David considered himself as being a native of the city.

He was seventeen when he married the daughter of Rabbi Shlomo Yoskovitz, the son–in–law of the Hassidic rebbe Rabbi Avraham Mordechai of Ger. For some years he lived with his father–in–law in Warsaw and in Ger, and was later chosen as chief of the rabbinical court of Zhiradov [Zyrardow].

In the year 5696 [1936]^[36] Rabbi Yosef died. The Hassidim of Amshinov chose Rabbi Yaakov David to succeed him as rabbi and rebbe. But as per the request of the residents of Zhiradov, Rabbi Yaakov David did not give up his rabbinical position there. So from that point forward he served both as the rebbe and chief of the rabbinical court of Amshinov, as well as chief of the rabbinical court of Zhiradov, where he spent two days a week.

Every year on the memorial day for his father, the rebbe Rabbi Yosef, who was buried with honors in the great Jewish cemetery in Warsaw, the rebbe Rabbi Yaakov David would arrive in that city, where he would provide tables of food for all of the Amshinov Hassidim who gathered there, coming from all the places in which they lived. He surveyed his loyal community of Hassidim, many of whom would frequently visit him in Amshinov. They were enthusiastically and loyally devoted to him, seeing in him the great heir of the glorious tradition of the house of Amshinov.

With the outbreak of the Holocaust, Amshinov was burned. The rebbe Rabbi Yaakov David fled to Warsaw with his family and devotees. He remained in the capital of Poland, suffering the torture and pain of the Polish Diaspora at its worst, days when it was writhing in its terrible and bitter death spasms.

It was then that the full splendor and glory of the rebbe Rabbi Yaakov David as a lover of the people of Israel was revealed. His heart was open to all. The pain of his brothers was his pain, the suffering of Jews was his suffering. He trembled like a leaf in a storm to hear the pain. In those mad times many people had learned how to harden their hearts, to become innured to suffering, to listen to terrifying tales of horrors that were perpetrated by the bloody dogs of Nazism with indifference. But the young Rabbi Yaakov David was able to tap the wellsprings of love for the people of Israel that were hidden deep within his great soul. As the tortures and suffering grew, so did his great love for every Jew. He not only participated in the sorrow of every person, but also felt the pain of all who came within his sphere.

Rabbi Yaakov David was imprisoned behind the walls of the Warsaw Ghetto along with the masses of his brethren and hundreds of his Hassidim. He continued to lead his followers from a garret. In the year 5702 [1942] he contracted typhus and died in the ghetto^[37]. He was buried in the mausoleum of his grandfather, the rebbe Rabbi Menachem, alongside his father, the rebbe Rabbi Yosef. His wife and four children were also killed in the Holocaust.

This is the story of Reb Shmuel Grudke [Grudka], one of the leading citizens of Ostroveh in the beginning of the seventh century^[39]: I was released from service in the Russian army after twelve years. I returned to my home and my wife without so much as a penny in hand. Upon the advice of my wife, I traveled to Ciechanow to see the tzadik Rabbi Avraham to seek his blessing. The rabbi blessed me

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with success when I would go out to do business. “But what will I go out with?” I asked. “With my blessing,” he replied. So I went forth with the blessing of the tzadik of Ciechanow to the market place in Ostroveh, but with nothing else in hand. I walked around among the peasants and peddlers with a heavy heart. Then I saw a peasant alongside a wagon loaded down with grain. “Do you want to buy it, sir?” he asked. “But I have no money,” I replied. “So I will lend it to you, and you will sell it for a profit and pay me back.” I did not refuse. I put the grain into my courtyard, sold it for a good price, and made a decent profit, all in two or three days. A week later market day was again held in Ostroveh and I went there. I saw a group of peasants and in the middle one of them was one who was yelling and tearing his hair out. I approached them out of curiosity and alas it was the very same peasant who had sold me his grain. He was bitter and blamed himself for acting like a real fool. He had come to the market a week before with his grain and had sold it trustingly to a Jew whom he did not know, and now the grain was gone, the money was gone, and the Jew was gone.

I went over to him and took him aside and said, “I am the one who bought your grain. I came to look for you and to pay you what is owed to you. I have the money in my rucksack, and I will count it out for you down to the penny.”

I gave the peasant his money and his eyes lit up. In a second he completely changed and became very happy. He hugged me and slapped me on the shoulder repeatedly. “There is no more trustworthy a Jew like you in all the world,” he muttered without hesitation, “and from now on I will do business only with you” permanently.

And from that day forward, Reb Shmuel related, I became agent for that farmer and all the others from his village and from nearby villages. They faithfully brought me all their produce, and I sold it and served them faithfully as well. This is how Reb Shmuel became wealthy. He fully believed that it was due to the merit of the tzadik that he had obtained his livelihood and wealth. And the peasants remained loyal to him until his last day. And after his death they remained loyal to his children and heirs, who continued doing business with them up until the outbreak of the Holocaust. And at every occasion they would tell people that it was all due to the blessing of the tzadik of Ciechanow, which continued in force.

Among the honored and respected residents of Ostroveh of the last generation before the Holocaust was Rabbi David Lichtenstein. He was chairman of the community council, chairman of the Linat Hatzedek society, one of the officials of Agudat Yisrael, and one of the most active Jews locally.

Rabbi David Lichtenstein was a gentle soul and possessor of excellent personal characteristics, an observant Jew, as well as one who recognized the need for, and was willing to undertake, action. His comings and goings and his actions were always thought out and evaluated in advance. He fought for pure Judaism. He identified with all his being with the fundamentals of Agudat Yisrael, but he also conducted himself with refinement and caution.

He was a figure who inspired respect. There was never a spot on his clothing. His home was open to all, and he willingly welcomed guests. He was prepared to help others with all his heart, to support the person who was ill and those who needed help and succor. And he did all this quietly and carefully. He was an honored Jew who in his actions represented the rare paragon of an activist who undertakes responsibilities without any expectation of reward. He was a businessman engrossed in his enterprises, but who always found time for communal affairs.

In the year 5684 [1923–1924], after the first democratic community elections in Ostrow Mazowiecka, he was chosen to represent his party, Agudat Yisrael, on the community council.

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After the elections Rabbi David was chosen as chairman of the community council, a truly representative role, and a position of honor. With great ability and sensitivity he fulfilled this role to the satisfaction of all.

Rabbi David was a party man, a man of Agudat Yisrael. Nevertheless, many in Ostrow Mazowiecka correctly saw in him a man of the entire community.

At the outbreak of the Holocaust, Rabbi David escaped from Ostrow Mazowiecka with his family to the Russian zone of occupation. He was among the masses of refugees from Ostroveh in Slonim, and was incarcerated in the ghetto there when the city was conquered by the Nazis. He was killed when the Jews of the city were destroyed.

A native of Plotsk, Rabbi Anshel Knorpel was one of the most important citizens and leaders of Jewry in Ostrow Mazowiecka, having served as chairman of the executive body of the community until the outbreak of the Holocaust and the destruction of the city. At a young age he married the daughter of Rabbi Dan (known locally as “Pious Dan”), and from then on was a resident of the town.

He was one of the Hassidim of Ger, and as such he traveled to visit the rebbe Rabbi Aryeh Leib, and after his death, to see his son, the rebbe Rabbi Avraham Mordechai of Ger. He conducted his home according to the best traditions of pure Hassidism, that of Ger Hassidism, which brooked no compromises.

Rabbi Anshel was an accomplished scholar. He both loved Torah and persevered in his study of it. He studied in depth, with profundity and great effort. He did not subscribe to superficial study that did not endeavor to penetrate to the depths of the matter or to discuss a theory or issue. Rabbi Anshel especially studied Halacha and stood out for his knowledge of the opinions of both the early and later decisors.

In addition to being an outstanding Judaic scholar, Rabbi Anshel also knew Russian and Polish, as well as accounting. He inherited a vinegar factory, and was so successful in his business that he came to be known as one of the richest men in the city. He always contributed to all worthy causes.

Rabbi Anshel was thought of being something of a zealot, a man who stood by his ideas and who refused to depart from his path. He loathed compromises and the very idea of compromise, opportunistic approaches and weak positions. In public affairs as in private ones, he always knew what he wanted and where he was headed, stubbornly and determinedly taking steps in that direction.

He was an activist in communal affairs. And since the establishment of the Agudat Yisrael movement in Ostrow Mazowiecka, he was considered one of its most loyal participants. He represented

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Agudat Yisrael on the city council and was chosen as chairman of the executive body of the Jewish community in the last elections of the community in Ostroveh. He served as the last chairman of this bustling and outstanding community.

As a man of public affairs and as the representative of the Jews of the city, Rabbi Anshel excelled in his own unique and characteristic way. He did not subscribe to the theory that the end justifies the means. This idea was absolutely unacceptable to him, as it was to every conscious observant Jew. But at the same time he never forgot the goal, and that attaining that goal was obligatory. Deviations only lengthen the path to that goal and detract from the mission.

In the last years of the existence of the community in Ostrow Mazowiecka, Rabbi Anshel Knorpel was head of the community and its representative on the city council, a task that was not an easy one in the difficult period that led up to the Holocaust. Anti–Semitism in Poland increased materially from day to day. The Jews suffered greatly from the economic boycott, from deprivation of their rights and from discrimination. The Jewish community council became the central address for all the problems of the Jews of the locale and its environs. The head of the community knew no respite day or night. Rabbi Anshel persevered in his difficult position with honor, and until the last day of the existence of the community he never relinquished his post.

The city council was comprised mainly of Poles, despite the large proportion of Jews among the residents of Ostroveh. Under the cover of officially democratic elections, the authorities worked hard to minimize Jewish representation, while inflating the Polish representation out of all proportion. The representatives of the Jews on the council, headed by Rabbi Anshel Knorpel, had the difficult task of combating both blatant and subtle anti–Semitic aims of the Polish leaders of the city. Rabbi Anshel also stood this test with honor and ability.

In the horrific Holocaust he and his family were killed. With the destruction of the community, so too was destroyed its last head and representative.

Rabbi Nachman Goldberg was born in Trestina [Trzcianne], a small town near Bialystok, in the year 5618 [1857–1858] into a prominent family of merchants, scholars and honorable men. He studied in the yeshivot of Lithuania, and at a young age married the daughter of the wealthy Feige Zissel Bromberg of Ostroveh, and became one of the important residents of the town. He was considered a scholar, a businessman, and a trustworthy individual who was acceptable to all.

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A Jew with a pleasing appearance that evoked great honor and admiration among all groups, he reveled in fulfilling the commandments and observed all of them meticulously. He loved the Torah and was loyal to pure Judaism without deviating left or right. He conducted himself with calm, and his conversation was well considered. He rejected rashness in general and rashness in thought in particular. He respected every human being, and did not embrace new theories and approaches. His appearance was always well put together, pleasant and spotless, as was his manner, well laid out and organized. He was not taken in by precipitous actions or rash efforts. He was serious and practical by nature, shunning light headedness in thought and deed.

He was a devoted and respected merchant, who successfully conducted his diverse businesses for decades in Ostroveh. In the synagogue he sat along the eastern wall among the other merchants and businessmen of the city. He rejected quick profits that came from trickery or subtle actions or that did not conform to the respectable and accepted conduct of honorable merchants. In general he would not touch any transaction that even bordered on fraud of any kind.

He thus developed a reputation as trustworthy and honorable, a man whose word could be relied upon, whose word was his bond. His word was more important to him than any profit or loss. He knew how to stand up for his rights, but at the same time respected the rights of others as well. He never coveted what others had and never demanded anything that was not his due. He was a gentleman merchant of the old school.

For many years Rabbi Nachman Goldberg served as the head of the community in Ostrow Mazowiecka, up until the time of World War I. He had an excellent command of the Russian language, and represented the Jewish community to the authorities with honor and brilliance. At the same time, he succeeded in conducting the affairs of the community with great skill, including its relationship with its rabbis. He was the archetype of a head of a community in those days, who knew how to bring glory to his post and to elevate it.

Rabbi Nachman was an opponent of Hassidism, the scion of a Mitnagdic family of many generations. He worked in Mitnagdic circles for decades, even as all of his brothers–in–law of the Bromberg family had become devoted Hassidim of Ger. During the years when the rebbe Rabbi Yosef of Amshinov served as rabbi of Ostroveh, Rabbi Nachman drew close to him and became a loyal friend and his greatest admirer. Under the influence of the rebbe, Rabbi Nachman became a Hassid, and during the latter years of his life was to be counted among those Hassidim of Amshinov who were attached to their rabbi.

After World War I Rabbi Nachman moved to Warsaw, where he lived up until his death. In the year 5686 [1926]^[40] Rabbi Nachman passed away in Warsaw with an admirable reputation. He was sixty–nine years old at his death, which evoked great sorrow among his many acquaintances and admirers.

Rabbi Aaron Yashinsky arrived in Ostroveh as a young man in order to marry the daughter of Rabbi Moshe Schwartz^[41]. He settled in the city and assimilated like a fitting link into the multifaceted chain of the respected people of the town, who took pride in the lively community and transformed it into a outstanding shining pearl of the great paradise that was the Diaspora of Poland, Lithuania and Galicia. With his deeds and actions, his characteristics and his very being, Rabbi Aaron added yet another element to the beautiful edifice that was the Jewry of Ostrow Mazowiecka.

Being that he was a “nice young man,” Rabbi Moshe Schwartz took him into his home as a son–in–law. He was well learned in Torah, although he never thought to transform his knowledge of Torah into a means of earning a living. He lived in the house of his father–in–law for some years, after which time he turned to business, and eventually became a successful merchant, who walked the straight and narrow path. What was on his lips was also what was in his heart. He was among the handful of merchants who brought honor to Jewish commerce, and who acquired the trust of both Jews and non–Jews.

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Rabbi Aaron Yashinsky was charming and possessed outstanding personal characteristics from his earliest days. And as he got older his traits, his measured ways and his pleasant mien came to symbolize his fine and distinguished personality. He always saw the good that was about him and sought out the good. He always knew what he was faced with, but approached it without conflict or contention. He steered clear of gossip and disputes. He was beloved by all who came into contact with him, whether in his business or in the great house of the Hassidim of Ger.

Thus Rabbi Aaron he was a true Hassid and scholar who adhered to his teacher, the rebbe of Ger. By nature he was not assertive, and was not among those Hassidim who were aggressive and sharp. He was rather devoted heart and soul to pure Hassidism, without ever deviating from it. At the house of the Hassidim of Ger he would regularly deliver a lecture on the Gemara^[42], and many would listen to his disquisitions and explanations. His lectures resembled his manner, that is, quiet and restrained. He was devoted to the truth of the Halacha, and rejected tortuous logic, but did so with his characteristic gentility and charm.

In addition to all this he was also active on behalf of the good and welfare of the community, but on a completely voluntary, non–remunerative basis, and without seeking any honors or position for his work on behalf of his fellow man. He was always ready to undertake any task or deed, but always with quiet and restraint, and with careful forethought. He had great energy, which always translated into positive outlooks. He did not like the noise and tumult that often surrounds general and communal affairs. He would walk along in a quiet and modest manner towards any goal. He was devoted to the mission and not to the noisy behavior that so often accompanies public affairs.

When the economic condition of deprivation worsened in the final period before the Holocaust, Rabbi Aaron established a charitable fund, which he ably directed and into which he invested great effort.

As a devoted Hassid of Ger, he was an Agudat Yisrael man. In the last elections for the Jewish

In the community as well he conducted himself in his usual calm and pleasant manner. It is said that Rabbi Aaron had virtually no enemies in Ostroveh, as he never had offended anyone and never caused pain to any person. On the contrary, he did everything to help others, to assist Jews who were left without sustenance, as anti–Semitism in Poland began to rear its ugly head in Poland with the rise of the Nazis.

When the Holocaust broke out, Rabbi Aaron Yashinsky escaped with his family to Slonim, which was in the Soviet zone of occupation, where he died a martyr's death along with his family.

Who has not heard the stories of wonder about great scholars and exceptional righteous men, great Hassidim and activists, whom we had in the cities of Poland, and in its towns and villages? They worked hard and sacrificed

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and devoted all their days to becoming holy and pure, to arise and motivate themselves to attain a higher level without seeking any quid pro quo, without seeking any tangible benefit, without enjoying any pleasure whatsoever from their knowledge of the Torah or their Hassidism, from their hard work and their efforts, which they devoted entirely, along with themselves, to the objective to which they aspired, to the goal that stood before their eyes.

Who has not heard of these exceptional people who were not concerned with themselves, those few extraordinary people whose hearts are open like a great hall to everyone who seeks or needs it, but who themselves need nothing? They were wonderful people who were prepared to undergo all manner of suffering and sacrifice, every task and action without asking anything for themselves. They were towering figures, who never thought of themselves and never worried about themselves, but rather who were pure and free of that motivation of selfishness that causes such destruction in the world, that renders mountains into valleys and valleys into mountains, that distorts the straightforward and confuses all thought and conversation, that same personal interest that blinds the eye and darkens even the brightest of lights.

There were not many of these even during the days of glory and greatness of the grand Diaspora of Poland, even fewer during its decline and fall. One of few who in their very being and in their deeds resembled that exalted tradition was the gaon and Hassid, the activist and devotee, Rabbi Avraham Petziner [Pecyner].

There are those who stand out as a Hassid, and those who stand out as a scholar. There are those who are distinguished by their activism, and those who are distinguished by their wisdom. There were those who rose above personal considerations, but never made any effort to stand out, to ascend to the pinnacle of society. They remained indifferent to honor or status. There were very few like these who refused honors or status symbols, who worked hard and struggled without hesitation but without trying to stand out. One of these few was the Gaon Rabbi Avraham Petziner, may God avenge his blood.

This Rabbi Avraham appeared to be a simple and regular Jew, one of the hundreds of thousands who lived in Poland before the days of the Holocaust. He wore a traditional Jewish hat, and was wrapped in a long, simple coat. He was a leather merchant in town, who dealt with tanners and shoemakers, a merchant of the second or third tier or below. His limited, even shriveled up business, yielded less than those of his competitors in this field, who far exceeded him in their enterprises. With his limited income, he was far from wealthy, but was rather a Jew under [financial] pressure.

Rabbi Avraham was born in Sokolka^[43] to his father, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Petziner, a learned Hassid. He was a merchant and a smart man, the son of Rabbi Zalman Zelig Petziner.

Rabbi Zalman Zelig was from Ostroveh. He was one of the first––and one of the leaders––of the Hassidim of Kotsk, and one of its pathfinders in a city with many opponents to Hassidim and Hassidism. His Torah, his faith and his Hassidism seemed inherent in his very blood, profound, enthusiastic and evoking respect. He was one of the outstanding people of his generation, and a central pillar of Hassidism in his city of residence. He refused any official position, honor or status. He was always full of happiness and enthusiasm. When asked what his role was in Ostroveh, he would reply without hesitancy, “a fool on the holidays,” as he served as service leader in the house of the Hassidim, where he would take to the podium to lead the additional service on holidays.

The local residents remember Rabbi Zalman Zelig with awe and respect. They looked back on his past in sacred awe. He was a giant of the spirit hiding behind the cloak of regular Hassid. All of his days and years were devoted to good works on behalf of God. He had no time for everyday secular problems. His daily studies became an integral part of his persona, the essence of his being. He would begin them in the early hours of the evening and finish them in the hours before noon. The measure of Torah is far from the land, from the seas and the oceans [he believed]. Thus, a short sail just to satisfy the minimal requirements, meaning one who begrudged the long hours of study, was not even considered true study, according to Rabbi Zalman Zelig.

Such people would finish the lesson and go right to prayer, to worship. A Hassid of Kotsk is not accustomed to running like that

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from study to prayer, like a peddler who moves from counter to counter. Preparation is important. In the winter it would be necessary to cut it short, as the day is short. In the summer it was possible to extend it. But it never ended until shortly before the afternoon prayer which followed it. And so did Rabbi Zalman Zelig pray, morning, afternoon and evening prayers almost in a single breath.

After evening prayer they reminded themselves that they in effect were in a state of fasting for most of the day before even they tasted any food, except for a glass of whiskey that they would drink at the time of being called up to the Torah, or between lessons. But who is it that cannot feed his soul, if only slowly, with restraint, with forethought? Being hungry, craving for food, is not a characteristic for Hassidim. Then they would grab one more lesson, learning something. Only in the hours of the night would they go home, to their only real meal in the day, meager and limited though it was, just enough to revive the soul. By the time they finished their meal the hour was late. There were still a few small lessons waiting to be had, looking something up in a book. And then it was necessary to rest a bit in order to have the strength to rise again to worship God.

As for support of the household, raising the children and caring for them was the responsibility of the loyal spouse. The expenses were not all that great, so they could be loaded upon the shoulders of the woman as well. And so long years of a life of Torah and good works passed. They rose further and further and reached extraordinary peaks of exceptional learning and devoted Hassidism. In the refinement of their personal characteristics and the purification of their deeds the worked hard and repeated and worked hard again until they became elevated people, men of exaltation.

The Gaon Rabbi Avraham Petziner

But these giants passed on. They left behind them a great desire to transcend, a yearning and an oppressive empty space, and a treasure of stories and experiences. The next generation invested these experiences and desires, these yearnings and longings in Torah, in study and research. Rabbi Menachem Mendel Petziner was among this generation. Like his father–in–law, he was also a leather merchant. He devoted a number of hours each day to business. He conducted his business with energy and diligence, but was always in a hurry, trying to compress his entire business into a few hours, which he viewed as being superfluous, as too much. Rabbi Menachem Mendel did not believe in light learning, just grabbing a book in off–times during business hours, which has no real impact. If one is going to study it should be

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study worthy of its name, study with full use of knowledge and time. A person who is limited or preoccupied will never succeed in plumbing the depths of the Talmud.

Rabbi Menahem Mendel, the Hassid and scholar, the merchant and diligent person, did not abandon the traditions of his fathers of unlimited loyalty to Hassidism, of the Kotsk–Ger variety. From Sokolka in Lithuania he would often travel to Ger to the court of the rebbe. He trained his oldest son, Rabbi Avraham, in this tradition as well.

Rabbi Avraham was born in Sokolka in the year 5639 [1878–1879]^[44]. As with all the boys of the town, he learned in the cheders [one–room elementary schools] of the local teachers. An outstanding boy, he was different from the other boys, more alert, sharper, standing out by virtue of his intelligence and his deeper understanding. He was a skinny, short boy. He advanced from cheder to cheder, and attached himself to older boys and soon outdistanced them. His teachers said that he was a genius.

From time to time he would travel with his father to Ger, to the court of the rebbe, author of the S'fat Emet, who captured his heart and soul. As a small boy he already became an enthusiastic Hassid. He would occasionally come to Ostroveh, to the house of his grandfather, Rabbi Zalman Zelig, the noted and devoted Hassid, who loved his gifted grandson and towards whom he exhibited deep feelings of affection. This influence of the elderly grandfather on the boy was great. His image never left him until his last day.

But Rabbi Avraham was still too young to invest his time in Hassidism. Young in age but possessed of rare talents that few others have, he had first to learn a great deal. The teachers in Sokolka were still not of the caliber needed for his studies. He went to Sochachow, to the yeshiva of Rabbi Avraham, author of Avnei Neizer [Jewels in the Crown]^[45]. The genius of Sokolka became close to the rebbe/gaon, and became the star pupil of this elderly prince of the Torah. Rabbi Avraham admired his teacher, and the rabbi of Sochachow adored his young student who came from afar and praised him highly.

Even at the yeshiva of Sochachow, where the few students there were the best of the best, Rabbi Avraham Petziner stood out. Many were knocking at the door of this yeshiva, aspiring to a title that evoked honor, “student of the gaon of Sochachow”. Many streamed to this yeshiva, but only a few were accepted. These few were only accepted after extensive selection and testing. The students had to pass many tests before they were accepted at the yeshiva. Only a small number of sharp young men, great in their knowledge of the Torah, true geniuses, sat and learned in the yeshiva of the author of Avnei Neizer.

The lectures of the rebbe/gaon excelled in their great acuity and in their amazing depth. Even the best students had to work very hard to keep up with their teacher and to absorb the knowledge of Torah of the gaon of Sochachow. Rabbi Avraham withstood this test and stood out among the others. He was already considered a genius in Sokolka when he was a boy. And he was also thought of as a genius in Sochachow as a young man. It was clear that he was destined for greatness. After his marriage he would likely obtain a position as a communal rabbi or as an instructor in a yeshiva, as a majority of the students of the great yeshiva of Sochachow became rabbis or instructors, if not decisors and leaders of the people, who filled official positions.

But Rabbi Avraham Petziner's path was different. He refused to enter the rabbinate or any other official position, however distinguished it might be. This sharp and mature young man, who knew the entire Talmud by heart, who was learned and expert in both the early and later commentators, refused to contemplate any offer that involved removing him from his simple way of life as a young man studying with other young men, a new Hassid among the throngs of Hassidim, who was living among the people as one of them.

In Ostrow Mazowiecka, where his Hassidic grandfather lived, he established his place as well. The house of the Hassidim of Ger became his principal residence. There he sat and learned in every available moment. On holidays he would make his way to Ger, to his teacher and rabbi, the rebbe. For a number of years he lived at the home of

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his father–in–law. But he then left his board there and Rabbi Avraham turned to a business in hides.

He did not have much time to devote to his business, as he had a set learning schedule each day and would never deviate from it. Rabbi Avraham would never proceed to prayer before he had reviewed several pages of Gemara in depth, as he would suggest innovative interpretations of them. And in addition to lessons in Talmud and Halacha he did not neglect looking into books with a research orientation and those of a homiletic nature, as well as books on Hassidism and kabbalah. Studies require time, especially when they demand further depth and analysis of issues even after study.

In Ostroveh there was to be found Rabbi Ben–Zion, the greatest of Hassidim, and it was worthwhile to spend time––a lot of time––in his presence, to learn from him what exactly Hassidism was in effect. And who better than Rabbi Avraham to absorb the words and teachings of Rabbi Ben–Zion? Rabbi Avraham became the star pupil of Rabbi Ben–Zion, who brought him near and loved him and showered his affection upon him.

The young Hassid, Rabbi Avraham, while becoming even more fully developed, still rejected any official service. But he quickly rose in the levels of pure Hassidism. His great modesty dominated him and his inherent natural characteristics. He became one of exalted and extraordinary values. Even the most critical Hassidim, who negated just about everything, looked sympathetically and acceptingly upon Rabbi Avraham Petziner as the complete man.

Rabbi “Avramaleh”, as he was widely called, was a smart man, a wise man who would always think and penetrate to the depths of matters. He knew how to distinguish between what was important and what was not, between the wheat and the chaff. He operated on the basis of what was essential in Hassidism, on the fundamentals of this approach, much as he worked hard on the bases of the Halacha and on the roots of each issue therein. They said that Rabbi Avraham was a scholar who understood the nature and meaning of study, a Hassid who knew the nature and essence of Hassidism, a man of great understanding in Hassidism.

He was full of profound and far reaching ideas in all aspects of the Torah, full of acuity and wisdom. Rabbi Avramaleh soon stood out among the masses of Hassidim all over Poland in general, and in the halls of Ostrow Mazowiecka in particular, as an exceptionally modest man who fled from honor and distinctions and who rejected titles and positions. He was unwillingly elevated into the front row of orthodox, Torah–oriented personalities in Poland.

The Hassid who worked hard at all his Hassidism, the scholar who never neglected his studies even for a day, the merchant who worked hard to earn a living, also found time for communal affairs, for efforts on behalf of others. This was true whether in was in the social welfare realm of providing aid and succor to a Jew who had lost his income, or to a suffering family, for a needy bride, or the redemption of captives, or whether it was on the municipal level, in the local context.

Rabbi Avraham joined the Agudat Yisrael movement from the day it was founded. With every fiber of his being he took upon himself the obligation and concern of building this Torah movement which, according to his best understanding, was potentially able to save an endangered people. Rabbi Avraham viewed the ideological conflict that was raging in the Jewish community as a matter of life and death for the nation, as one that cut the nation off from its true purpose, from the mother lode of its quarry, which would lead to the elimination of the nation, to its destruction. There is no survival for the Jewish people but for its Torah, or without its religious mission. Why would a non–religious Jew even identify with Judaism? Would he not convert, would he not assimilate into the other nations? Would he not cut all his ties to his past, to his national identity? And if not in the first generation, the second or third generation would abandon its eternal sources, resulting in the elimination of the nation. And to what end were these worthless prescriptions of socialism, of Zionism, which would only lead to the spiritual scaffold, to substantive suicide?

His great and stormy soul, which researched deeply and aspired to reach great heights, knew neither rest nor peace. Enemies arose that sought to undermine the House of Israel, to bring about its physical demise. Friends, brothers arose who shared our troubles and suffering, but who proposed false and harmful solutions that are dangerous and threatening

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and that instead of deliverance were likely to bring about destruction, God forbid. In the eyes of Rabbi Avraham the people of Israel were enmeshed in woes and captivity both from within and from without. He felt that he was drafted to seek to save them and to help them with devotion and sacrifice.

But Rabbi Avraham was drafted into this work as a simple soldier. He preferred to remain a plain soldier, just one of the gang who does the dirty and difficult work. But there really was no hard work on this front. Because work is measured according to the value and significance of its goal, not according to the labor invested in it. He became known as an orator and author. He did not sign his articles with his real name, not because he did not identify with what was said in them, but rather because of a sincere desire not to stand out.

Both his articles and his speeches were full of enthusiasm. He was a deep thinker in his conversations with individuals, and it was sometimes difficult to fully comprehend his thoughts. But in his public appearances, as he toured cities and towns on missions on behalf of his party, Agudat Yisrael, he appealed to the everyday person, to the masses. He delivered his message while quaking with emotion, expressing things that came straight from the heart and that penetrated the hearts of his listeners. With devotion and sacrifice he made his rounds, for he required nothing for himself, and everything was for others.

The party had been founded on behalf of the people, of the simple Jew. It had to get involved in all areas and spheres of life, economic, political, educational and spiritual. It was necessary to draw in the masses of members and adherents or potential adherents to explain things, to direct them. But it was from the activists of the movement, that thin layer of representatives of Agudat Yisrael, that one could demand exceptionalism, an exemplary life as a model for the masses, something greater than normal.

And Rabbi Avraham demanded this with his customary enthusiasm and feeling. After all, was not the final goal to achieve that high level, to lift oneself up from the raw earth somewhat, from the vulgar material world? The activist should always hold the goal up before his eyes, without any other,

Rabbi Leibel Petziner

Rabbi Avraham saw the period in which he was living and working as a period of crisis that necessitated total commitment, as a dangerous period that required every effort, as a period which forbade every son of Torah, even the greatest, to lock himself up in his home and to hide from the battle. He proposed establishing a B'nei Torah [Sons of Torah] organization. He worked to draft all such ennobled young men for the battle on behalf of the rule of Torah and the life of Torah amidst an endangered people, some of whom were converting, as other dangers also threatened its spiritual existence and its future.

His income continued to decline, and he knew much suffering, hardship and pain. But it was as if he drowned his sorrow in his studies and his holy work. His friends and admirers proposed a rabbinical position, as appropriate for a gaon like him. But Rabbi Avraham turned down every such offer, and absolutely refused to accept a rabbinical position. He managed to support his family with great difficulty. He preferred to invest his unusual talents on behalf of

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the community, for others, for the movement that had become an inseparable part of his being and which he served without blemish.

Despite the fact that he was a party man, despite his unending battles with other movements and his unconditional identification with Agudat Yisrael, Rabbi Avramaleh remained beloved by the masses, from near and far, from among those who were his supporters and those who were his opponents. For they knew the purity of his deeds and his character, his big, beautiful soul, pure and lacking any flaw. People knew that what he did he did in truth and sincerity, with full knowledge and without personal thoughts or private agendas.

When the Holocaust broke out, Rabbi Avraham and his family fled to Bialystok, and from there to Slonim, where he remained until he met his death, a sacrifice to the glory of God. They said that in the last days Rabbi Avraham became an extraordinary man, who rose to unanticipated heights. In the dark ghetto he took almost no food or drink, but was completely devoted to holy work. Pure and holy, he returned his sacred soul to its creator, as he fell at the hands of lowly murderers.

His son, Rabbi Leibel, an outstanding young man who in many ways resembled his father, who was a great Torah scholar and Hassid, and who for many years served as a leader of the Ger Hassidim in Ostrow Mazowiecka and as head of the Agudat Yisrael youth movement, died with his father in the destruction of the ghetto in Slonim^[46].

Among the earliest Hassidim in Ostroveh and its pathfinders was the old Rabbi Gershon. In his youth he was among the sharpest and most devoted young men of the Hassidim of Kotsk. Thereafter he was one of the leaders of the Hassidim of Ger.

His profession was as a teacher of young children. The rebbe of Ger, author of the S'fat Emet, invited him to teach his oldest son, Rabbi Avraham Mordechai, who eventually succeeded him as the rebbe of Ger. For a number of years Rabbi Gershon lived in Ger, studying with the exceptional son of the rebbe, until he reached the age of thirteen.

Once the teacher and student were dealing with a particular question. After many years, after Rabbi Avraham Mordechai had ascended to the chair of his father, Rabbi Gershon came to visit him as one of his many Hassidim. The great rebbe kept him in his room for a moment and quickly took a book off the shelf and showed him a comment on that very question that the rebbe had once studied with him.

Rabbi Gershon was an excellent and exceptional scholar. He was deeply invested in the study of Torah and Hassidism. He gave many daily lectures. He regularly held forth on Mondays and Thursdays of Tat Shovavim^[47]. And after his fasting he would remain in the house of the Hassidim, finalizing his many lectures. Only after ten at night would he finish his daily routine of study and have his meager meal.

He was a poor man all his life, making due with very little, but he did not lack for anything that was within his grasp. His entire world was Torah and Hassidism. When he reached an advanced age he stopped teaching young children. He survived on a little bread and water. He was satisfied with his lot, studying Torah and Hassidism day and night, the content and essence of his life.

In the year 5672 [1911–1912] Rabbi Gershon died at the age of eighty^[48]. His son, Rabbi Yisrael David Podgorowitz was, like his father, considered an outstanding scholar and a true Hassid. He would frequently visit the rebbe, author of the S'fat Emet, and his son, the rebbe Rabbi Avraham Mordechai of Ger.

For many years he lived in Tiktin [Tykocin], where he got married. He was immersed in Torah and good works. He was a diligent person, and worked hard at his studies. He had a very beautiful voice, and was an exceptional prayer leader, who charmed his listeners. People suggested that he give up living in poverty and become a cantor and thereby earn an ample and honorable living from leading prayers. But Rabbi Yisrael David refused, saying

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“I would rather lug my sack of flour around and earn my living from the sweat of my brow than make a living on the payroll of the community.” He remained committed to this refusal until the outbreak of the Holocaust, in which he was killed in the destruction of Polish Jewry.

Up until the outbreak of World War I, the Gaon Rabbi Chaim Yosef Ozarov, son of the Gaon Rabbi Yerucham, served an instructor at the yeshiva of Ger and as a dayan and moreh tezedek in Rozan. He was a gifted and excellent teacher, as well as a very diligent person who studied day and night. His job as the dayan in a small town like Rozan did not impose upon him too much and did not impinge on his free time. He was free to devote most of his time to Torah to his heart's desire.

After the war Rabbi Chaim Yosef decided for some reason to leave the rabbinate. He moved to Ostrow Mazowiecka and began to engage in business for several hours a day. He removed his rabbinical garb, preferring the dress of the masses of Hassidim in Poland. It was not apparent that he had once served in the rabbinate.

As before, he dedicated most of his time to his studies. Every year he would complete the study of the Babylonian Talmud, over and above any other lectures and studies. He always viewed the few hours per day that he devoted to the business he ran as being excessive, a long break between his morning lesson and his afternoon one, but he soon finished up his secular work and returned to his studies.

And this was his daily routine: at three o'clock in the morning he would appear in the house of the Hassidim of Ger to pray and study. First he would regularly study the Bible, which he knew by heart, and from the Bible he would go to the Mishnah, and from the Mishnah to a close study of the Gemara. When Rabbi Chaim Yosef was engrossed in his studies, he forgot about everything else. Nothing in the world was of concern to him other than the Gemara and the topic that was there before his eyes.

In the house of the Hassidim he would give a regular daily lecture, and would study with tens of Hassidim the daf yomi [“daily page”]^[50]. He studied with awe and reverence, as he was a devoted and excellent Hassid, and few were like him. His prayers awed many people, as he stood in his corner and prayed at great length with fear and trembling, his body quaking. He would be very enthusiastic in his prayers and his other holy tasks.

Rabbi Chaim Yosef was an extremely devoted Hassid. He would frequently travel to the rebbe of Ger. And even among the masses of Hassidim in Ger he would be thought of as an exceptional scholar and an ardent Hassid, a true servant of God. Some years before the Holocaust, because of the lack of opportunities for earning a living in Ostroveh, he moved to Warsaw. He was imprisoned in the Warsaw ghetto along with hundreds of thousands of others of his brethren. When the ghetto was destroyed, he was transported to a death camp, where he died to the glory of God's name.

Among the first groups of Hassidim in Ostroveh was Rabbi Tuviah Eisenkramer (a merchant dealing in iron products). He was born in Bialystok. In his youth he studied in the yeshivot of Lithuania and settled in our city. At a young age he joined the Hassidim of Kotsk, and was thought of as one of the sharpest among them, respected by all, as a scholar and a wealthy man. He was both a Hassid and a man of compassion, a merchant who performed many good deeds and who helped others, but a merchant who devoted precious little of his time to business.

He was a scholar who studied in depth and with great effort. He approached his studies only after extensive preparation. Every lesson was carefully constructed and an entity unto itself. He did not leave

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the Gemara as long as he was innovating ideas, as long as he was uncovering new horizons and hidden pathways through the topic being studied. He was invested heart and soul in his studies. As he sat quietly, his pipe in his mouth, the entire world around him during these hours did not even exist. No shouts or yelling, no disturbances or controversies were able to prevent him from spinning the thread of his thoughts concerning the issue he was studying.

His style of prayer style matched his method of study. There were not many signs of passion, no outward movements. He approached worship in peace and quiet. Only his wandering big eyes indicated that Rabbi Tuviah was floating in higher realms, and that he was totally immersed in thought relating to his prayers.

He would regularly travel first to Kotsk and later to Ger, to the courts of the rebbes whose authority he accepted. The style of his Hassidism resembled that of his studies, organized and well planned in advance, never deviating from the framework that the Hassid Rabbi Tuviah established. The first among those who traveled to Kotsk and then Ger was Rabbi Ben–Zion Rabinowitz. And when he traveled to Ger, or on other longer trips, frequently Rabbi Tuviah would take his place. And for holidays, all the Hassidim of Ger would come to his house and happily spend time in his company.

His wife and family actually ran his place of business. Rabbi Tuviah did not have sufficient time to dedicate to iron products, to conduct business with farmers and contractors. He really belonged to another world, a higher one. Was he born and created to supply chains and rakes, bars and hammers to non–Jews in the environs of Ostroveh? Whenever the volume in the store increased and the problems multiplied, it would vex Rabbi Tuviah, because all worldly things are, after all, nothing but annoyances that disturb and prevent one from fulfilling one's great goal in life.

Rabbi Tuviah merited living to a ripe old age, and never ceased his studies or his work until his final day, when he returned his soul to his creator in holiness and purity.

Rabbi Avraham Mendel Galant was a native of Goworowo. In his youth he excelled in his great diligence and in his fear of heaven and of sin. His father, Rabbi Yitzchak Yaakov, was a committed and devoted Hassid of Warka and a scholar who dedicated his soul to Torah and Hassidism.

Rabbi Avraham Mendel was diligent from a young age, and loved Torah and its study. They said that he studied Torah eighteen hours a day. He was among the first to arrive at the study hall and the last to leave his bench there. Whether in the summer or the winter, on weekdays or on the Sabbath or holidays, he was always to be found sitting and learning, completely immersed in his studies.

He was eighteen when he married the daughter of Rabbi Yeshayahu, a maker of talitot [prayer shawls] in Ostroveh, and thus settled in the town^[51]. He came to Ostroveh as a young man knowledgeable in the Talmud and the decisors, and he continued his studies diligently, particularly in the old beit midrash, which was full of scholars in those days, and from which the sound of Torah study emanated day and night.

His father–in–law Rabbi Yeshayahu had provided a substantial dowry. He was a Jew who worked very hard for a living, but who saved enough from his earnings to provide such a dowry that would in turn merit a bridegroom who was well learned in the Torah. Rabbi Yeshayahu said that he would acquire a rabbinical position for his son–in–law that he would subsidize, but Rabbi Avraham Mendel refused. In the house of his devoted Hassidic father he had learned to dislike the rabbinate and such honors. He refused to turn his learning into an instrument by which he would earn a living for his family.

So he invested the dowry in a business, and succeeded in earning a respectable living. For a few hours a day he freed himself up from the yoke of earning a living, from business affairs, in order to make time for Torah study.

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During World War I, Rabbi Avraham Mendel became impoverished and lost his means of making a living. Under pressure from the rebbe Rabbi Yaakov David of Otvotsk [Otwock], son of the rebbe Rabbi Simcha Bunim of Warka, he agreed, for lack of an alternative, to an offer of a rabbinical position. He was then chosen to be chief of the rabbinical court of Zaremba [Zaremby Koscielne], that small city near Ostrow Mazowiecka. He served in the rabbinate from that time until the outbreak of the Holocaust.

With the outbreak of the Holocaust he was forced to escape to the Russian zone of occupation, from which he was exiled to Siberia. For many years he suffered hunger and want, and was very hard on himself. He was lenient in his rulings concerning others, because of the circumstances and the danger of plague and illness, but was strict with himself. Even in the difficult and bitter conditions of a labor camp he somehow managed to find a shofar to blow on Rosh Hashanah as the law required, despite the danger inherent in doing so. On the holiday of Sukkot he built a sukkah [booth] despite the peril. And for Passover he faithfully baked matzot [unleavened bread].

After the war he was able to immigrate to Israel and died in Jerusalem on the 25^th day of Tevet 5715 [January18–19, 1955], when he had just reached the age of eighty.

Rabbi Akiva was a native of Stavisk [Staviski] when he arrived in Ostroveh in the twenties of the seventh century of the present millennium [equivalent to the 1860's on the general calendar]. He quickly joined the Hassidim of Ger locally, and was considered a devotee of the first rebbe of Ger, author of Chidushei Harim. He frequently traveled to that rebbe, but upon his death he would often visit his successor, the rebbe Chanoch Henich Hacohen of Alexander, and the rebbe of Ger who was the author of the S'fat Emet.

It was said of him that he was a great scholar, one who easily sailed through the Talmud, the early commentators as well as the later ones, and that he knew entire issues by heart. But he never showed off his prominence in Torah study, determinedly concealing his deep and broad knowledge. In general he did not enter into disputes and extended discussions among the many learners, who were very numerous in the house of the Hassidim of Ger in Ostroveh. He stuck to his own studies and pretended as if he did not understand the conversation among the exceptional students who loudly debated their views and enthusiastically defended their particular approach and understanding of their studies. He only rarely got involved in these debates.

He was a true Hassid, extremely sharp, who dedicated all his days and years, all his strength and ability to pure Hassidism. He worked on his Hassidism day and night. He merited living to a very old age. And until his very last year he worked like a soldier on guard duty to defend Hassidism. He overcame all the obstacles in his way. Even as a very elderly Hassid it appeared as if there were combined within him

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two or three young, enthusiastic men, as he was always happy, merry and gay. He sometimes lacked for bread, sometimes suffered tribulations and pain, but they did not affect Rabbi Akiva, were never reflected on his shining face, never impinged upon his happiness, which infected everyone who came into contact with him.

Already in the wee hours of the night he appeared in the house of the Hassidim, as he rose early. And immediately upon his appearance, the house of the Hassidim was full of joy and gladness. This is how it was when he was young and continued to be in his very old age. He did not shrink from a funny joke, a dance, even a mildly sharp remark in order to bring happiness into the hearts of others as well as his own. He disliked sourpusses, those who assumed angry poses, or those who were pedantic. He could never reconcile himself to them. He pursued those with negative attitudes aggressively and stubbornly, and thus joy prevailed in the house of the Hassidim.

Rabbi Akiva died at an advanced age. They said that with his death, joy departed from within the walls of the house of Hassidim of Ger in Ostroveh. Bit by bit gloomy clouds covered the skies of Polish Jewry. Years of suffering and hardship came and caused the old days, the golden days of the merrymakers, to be forgotten.

Rabbi Nisan the Lithuanian was a regular instructor in the second grade of the local Talmud Torah and in the town's yeshiva. He was an exceptional scholar who excelled in his personal characteristics and behavior. He was a skinny man, a bag of bones. As a product of the Lithuanian yeshivot, he was an opponent of Hassidism who strictly followed the approach of the GRA^[53] of Vilna. He was meticulous in his observance of the commandments and particular in all matters, an opponent of easy ways out and of permissive approaches.

He slept very little and was one of the early risers in Ostroveh. His asceticism and lack of sleep left their mark on the man, who walked around like a skeleton and persisted in his difficult way of life. Every night he would hold a midnight study session, and during the day he would walk about wrapped in his phylacteries and prayer shawl. The fear of heaven always engulfed him. He was fearful of God, and spoke very little lest he fall into some forbidden act. Thus, he sought out new stringencies in the law to pile onto his already stooped back and his difficult way of life.

Much as he was strict in observing the word of heaven, in his dealing with people he was blatantly lenient. He taught his students to be endlessly forgiving. He explained to the children who studied with him that, “Every day is in effect Yom Kippur. A person must seek forgiveness daily for his sins, and should apologize to his compatriots, for the sins between man and man are not forgiven by repentance [to God], but rather only by reconciliation with his fellow man.” In order to avoid this difficult task, Rabbi Nisan was careful not to harm anyone. He eschewed any conflict or dispute; he refused to reprove others; and he scrupulously avoided any interpersonal sins.

His entire life he got by on the bare minimum, in the manner of learned scholars in those days, who used to immerse themselves in the Torah. His income was very limited, as his salary as a teacher was very low. But Rabbi Nisan did not even require that much money. His needs were infinitesimal, and even they appeared excessive to him. He ate meager and shriveled meals, just enough to keep himself alive. His clothing was wretched and his home was very modest and austere. His iron bed served him his entire life.

Yet despite his adherence to the commandments and his caution about violating any of them, he wholeheartedly joined the Zionist movement. He acquired the annual shekel that was distributed among members of the Zionist movement. In doing so he was almost the exception among the teachers of the Talmud Torah or the old beit midrash. But Rabbi Nisan was not intimidated by anyone. Many insulted him, reproved him, and even persecuted him for having joined the Zionists, but

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as usual Rabbi Nisan did not reply, did not respond to anyone. He preferred to be among those who are insulted, rather than among those who insult, and acted as if he did not even understand those who demeaned him. And he continued on this path until his last day, when he returned his soul to his creator.

After World War I the rebbe Rabbi Naftali Tzvi Shpiegel arrived in Ostroveh at the request and as a result of the efforts of his Hassidim, headed by Rabbi Chaim Berel, a simple Jew full of happiness and energy, who was dubbed “the shoemaker from Kosovo” in Ostroveh.

Meir Yechiel from Ostroveh had settled in Kaluszyn, where his father–in–law, Rabbi Yaakov Yitzchak, served as rebbe. For eighteen years he lived with his father–in–law and studied Torah and Hassidism. For some years he served as chief of the rabbinical court of Czekhin [possibly Cycow], which is near Lublin, and afterwards as chief of the rabbinical court of Monkavid [Mokodoby], which is near Siedlce. After the death of his father–in–law he acceded to the wishes of his Hassidim to lead the community, and then came to Ostrow Mazowiecka and settled there.

He opened his house of study in the city, and many of its residents and others from the surrounding area streamed to him, were attracted by his light, and studied Torah with him. The rabbi from Kaluszyn succeeded in attracting simple people to Torah and Hassidism, who in turn were devoted to him and admired him greatly.

He suffered greatly during World War I. So when he was asked by his Hassidim who had immigrated to the United States to come there, he acceded to their wishes.

The rebbe Rabbi Naftali Tzvi was born in Lublin in the year 5629 [1869] to his father, the rebbe Rabbi Moshe (son of the gaon who was chief of the rabbinical court in Ludomir), who was the son of the Gaon Rabbi Moshe Rokeach, chief of the rabbinical court of Skolye [Skole], a kinsman of the rebbe Rabbi Shalom of Belz.

He was ordained at a young age by the rebbe. In the year 5686 [1925–1926] he left Ostroveh and settled in New York, where he opened a beit midrash, to which many people were attracted and where they received advice and assistance.

His contacts with people in America were always gentle and refined, as it had been in Poland. His unusual and superior traits, which he had inherited from many generations of his ancestors, great scholars and rebbes, were evident. His Hassidim and admirers and all those who came into contact with him liked him very much, and news of him spread far and wide. In New York he became known as the rabbi from Ostroveh, because it was from this city that he came to the United States.

For twenty three years the rebbe Rabbi Naftali Aryeh^[54] ran his house of study in New York. On the twentieth day of Tishrei 5709 [October 23, 1948], he died in his eightieth year. His sons, Rabbi Elchanan Yochanan Shpiegel, Rabbi Moshe Menachem Shpiegel and Rabbi Pinchas Eliyahu Shpiegel, continued in his footsteps, serving as rabbis in New York.

One of the leaders of Ostroveh was Rabbi Yosef Wolf Rekant, a Hassid and communal leader, one who observed the commandments and performed them. He was full of love for the people of Israel, and his heart was full of compassion for every person created in the image of God. He was a Jewish shtadlan [intercessor] in the best of that old tradition. He was imbued with a sense of bringing people close and with a devotion to others.

Rabbi Yosef was among the Hassidim of Ger. An observant Jew who was careful to fulfill the most minor as well as the major commandments, he was opposed to every deviation from the holy way of life that was sanctified over the generations. He willingly accepted various responsibilities. In the house of the Hassidim he insisted on the sanctity of the place, making sure that no one spoke during prayers, even at those points where it was permissible. He stood by this rule for decades.

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He had no children, but was successful in his business, a flour mill, which brought in significant income, but which did not overly impinge upon him. He spent most of his time helping others. He was the Jewish shtadlan to whom the Russian authorities and police would turn. He was receptive to all requests to help Jews, and to arrange things with the authorities. He was always prepared to undertake such holy work, day and night, in the heat of summer or the storms of winter. He intervened in serious as well as minor matters. He was always ready to undertake a mission on behalf of a Jew with devotion and an open heart, and with dedication to his goal.

If a Jew were arrested, Rabbi Yosef would immediately go to the police station in an effort to have him released and to provide bail for him. In every instance of trouble or distress he was called in, and he came, ready to do whatever was necessary, even in the most difficult situation. He was an orphan who was left without parents, so in the case of a foundling, Rabbi Yosef would immediately deal with the matter, working hard and energetically and not resting until everything was arranged.

His wife, the righteous Rivka, always stood by his side in these matters of charity and mercy. For every Sabbath and holiday she would prepare a bounty of food. Rabbi Yosef Wolf and his wife would not sit down to their meal unless there were at least ten guests at their table. The couple worked hard to satisfy their hungry guests with smiles, to the point where it appeared that the guests were actually the ones providing generosity to Rabbi Yosef Wolf and his wife.

For many years Rabbi Yosef Wolf served as parnas [trustee] of the community. From World War I until the year 5684 [1923–1924] he served as one of the four officers of the community. In that year general elections were held for the communal institutions. Once again Rabbi Yosef Wolf was elected to the community council on the Agudat Yisrael ticket. On the council he was, as usual, interested in matters of providing assistance and succor to the poor and the ill. Until his final day he did not cease to work on behalf of others. When he died, the community of Ostroveh accompanied the coffin of this man of righteousness and mercy with pain and sorrow.

His widow, Rivka, remained in Ostroveh alone and solitary, as the couple had never had any children. She continued with all her strength to perform the acts of charity and compassion of her husband. She, too, like Rabbi Yosef Wolf, was always ready to help others, to do everything for the needy, the suffering, the ill and the depressed.

With the outbreak of the horrific Holocaust, when independent Poland was conquered by the Nazi hordes and parts of Poland were temporarily divided between Germany and Soviet Russia, Ostroveh, which was half destroyed and flowing with blood, became the closest point to the Soviet border. Jews from all the surrounding cities streamed into Ostroveh, hid there for a while until they could cross the nearby border to the Soviet zone of occupation.

Her relatives and family members begged her to cross over into the Soviet zone of occupation as well and thereby save her life. But she refused. She opened her residence to the many refugees who were passing through Ostroveh. With great devotion she fed these poor people who were fleeing the murderers, who were tired and without means. On the twenty–fifth [sic twenty–ninth] day of Cheshvan, 5700 [November 11^th, 1939], the murderers assembled the remaining Jews in Ostroveh, the righteous widow among them, and took them out to be killed^[56].

One of the first of the Warka Hassidim in Ostroveh, and one of the pioneers of Hassidism in the city and its environs, was Rabbi Meir Milner, a well known Hassid in town and its surrounding areas. He was one of the important Hassidim of the rebbe Rabbi Yitzchak of Warka and his son, the rebbe Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Warka, and his grandson, the rebbe Rabbi Simcha Bunim of Otvotsk. He was considered important, both welcome in the houses of the rebbes and beloved among the masses of Hassidim, a man of charity and righteousness, and a servant of God.

Rabbi Meir had a flour mill near Ostroveh, from which he derived a munificent income to the point of attaining real wealth. He did not keep his money just for himself and his family, but made much available to his fellow

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Hassidim and to the courts of the rebbes with great generosity. Rabbi Meir visited his mill just for a short time each day. Most of his time was spent in the house of the Warka Hassidim in town, among whose founders he was. As one of the original Hassidim, Hassidism was for him primary, and his other affairs secondary. He would frequently travel to the court of the rebbes in Warka. He would remain there for several weeks, and would return full of enthusiasm about continuing on his path in Hassidism.

The son–in–law of Rabbi Meir was Rabbi Mordechai Leib Goldwasser, a native of Lomza, son of Rabbi Hirsh, a Hassid who settled in Ostroveh. Like his father–in–law, Rabbi Mordechai Leib was also a scholar and a Hassid. He inherited the flour business from Rabbi Meir, and made a living from it all of his life. Rabbi Mordechai possessed great talents. His brother, the Gaon Rabbi Yehoshua Mendel, served as one of the rabbis of Tiktin, and was well known as a great scholar. Like him, Rabbi Mordechai Leib was considered a wonderful man.

Like his father–in–law and his father, Rabbi Mordechai Leib devoted only part of his time to his business. The majority of his time he dedicated to Torah, to good works and to caring for the sick. He considered himself a real physician, after he learned the basics of medicine on his own, from various books, and from his involvement with various doctors in the city. He learned Latin and knew how to read about and to prescribe various medicines. The owners of the pharmacies in Ostrow Mazowiecka recognized Rabbi Mordechai Leib [as a doctor] and dispensed medicines on the basis of his prescriptions, even if legally he was, understandably, not entitled to prescribe medicine to the sick or to care for them at all.

Eventually Rabbi Mordechai Leib became proficient in medical matters. He studied some with Dr. Landinsky of Lomza, the most famous doctor in the entire region. After that the physicians in Ostroveh also took account of him. Dr. Klietschka [possibly Dr. Reuven Klaczko], the leading Jewish doctor in town, consulted with Rabbi Mordechai Leib more than once when treating a seriously ill patient and finding him in the sick person's home.

Rabbi Yitzchak Pragier was a man of especially distinguished appearance, whose large, gleaming eyes evoked the attention of all who met him. He was born in Yadov [Jadow]^[58], and settled in Ostrow Mazowiecka. In his younger days Rabbi Yitzchak served

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as both a shochet [ritual slaughterer] and a mohel [ritual circumciser]. As he grew older he retired from slaughtering, but continued to serve as an expert mohel gratis. He was still eager to perform commandments, and as such viewed his work as a mohel as a religious calling that one should not ever relinquish one's entire life.

Rabbi Yitzchak was also an outstanding prayer leader, with an extremely pleasant and strong voice. He was one of the Hassidim of the rebbe Rabbi Tzvi of Lomaz [Lomazy]^[59]. Every year he would travel there to be in the court of his teacher the rebbe, where he also served as prayer leader. After the death of the rebbe of Lomaz, Rabbi Yitzchak joined the community of the Hassidim of the rebbe Rabbi Aharon Mendel of Radzymin^[60], where he also served as prayer leader on the High Holy Days from the time he arrived there. In the last years before the Holocaust, after the death of the rebbe of Radzymin, Rabbi Yitzchak affiliated with the community of Hassidim of the rebbe of Wyszkow^[61].

His children had immigrated to the United States, from where they sent him sufficient money for his needs, so that he could devote himself entirely to charitable work, to study and to prayer. He was involved in Hassidism for hours every day. The other hours were earmarked for acts of charity and compassion. There was not anything connected to the commandments or to charity in which Rabbi Yitzchak did not play an active role. He would not volunteer without being truly active.

He was a lover of Torah and a seeker of the study of Torah. As an avid Hassid, Rabbi Yitzchak prayed among the Hassidim of Ger. But he joined the Talmud study group at the new beit midrash in town, the stronghold of the Mitnagdim who prayed in the Ashkenazi manner^[62]. For a few years he served as the officer [gabbai] of the Talmud study group, working hard for it, seeking to expand the number of regular participants in its classes and securing lecturers for its sessions. As a result, the group had as many as 150 regular members who took part in its classes.

Everything that involved strengthening the life of Torah in Ostrow Mazowiecka was of interest to Rabbi Yitzchak Pragier. He always was working to raise money for the general Talmud Torah in town, and never tired of performing this core task. There had been established in Ostroveh a branch of the yeshiva Beit Yosef [House of Joseph] of Novhardok^[63]. Rabbi Yitzchak was appointed as one of its overseers, working diligently to raise money for it and to strengthen it. This was so even though he was far removed from its essence or program as a Lithuanian–style yeshiva whose style was incompatible with pure Hassidism, the Hassidism of Kotsk and the movement which grew out of it, like that of Lomza or Wyszkow and so forth, to which Rabbi Yitzchak had adhered since the days of his youth.

Rabbi Yitzchak was aware of every charitable need, whether communal or individual. He frequently visited the sick, especially those who were poor. He sometimes even gave them medicine, convinced as he was that he knew all about medicine. He took an interest in every woe that befell one of the residents of the city. If an abandoned child would appear in Ostroveh, Rabbi Yitzchak would first take him to his own home and make all the necessary arrangements.

With the outbreak of the Holocaust, Rabbi Yitzchak, along with the majority of the town's [Jewish] residents, fled to the Russian zone of occupation. He settled with some other refugees in Stolin. When its Jews were liquidated, Rabbi Yitzchak (may God avenge his blood) was also killed by the Nazi murderers.

Before World War I, Rabbi Yosef Bendit Kelewitz [Kelewicz or Kielewicz] was among the wealthy residents of Ostroveh, one of the most successful merchants in town. He was an enthusiastic Hassid of Ger, a philanthropist whose hand was always open. He was involved in the public affairs of the town and in its life and activities. During World War I he was expelled from Ostrow Mazowiecka. After the war he never succeeded in reestablishing himself economically. His business affairs were no longer

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successful. He was viewed by many as one whose economic status had declined as compared to his secure situation in days gone by.

But the changes that befell him business–wise over the course of time did not affect his public service or his initiatives to strengthen Judaism in Ostroveh. He particularly stood out in terms of his work in rescuing the next generation for pure Judaism. He gathered up children, and if necessary removed them from their environment that was full of depression and suffering. At his own expense he built an organization of young activists and established a special prayer group for them. And from his own funds, he hired a lecturer who would study with these young people every Sabbath. Remarking on this project, the rebbe Rabbi Avraham Mordechai of Ger observed that he was able to extract the wheat from the chaff.

He was an avid Hassid who suffered much in his life, who knew pain, but he accepted it all with love. He was reconciled to his pain and suffering, and found encouragement and inspiration in the pure Hassidism of the house of Ger, to which he was connected heart and soul. People from near and far related to him with affection and respect, as people in town knew of his former standing and about his honest work on behalf of others. The people of Ostroveh remembered him for his generosity of heart from the days when he was one of the wealthiest merchants in town, and for his public service.

Once, when he was walking in the street in the city of Warsaw, he found a large, heavy leather briefcase. Rabbi Yosef Bendit took it into a courtyard and examined the briefcase. In it he found a fortune, a large amount of money, and various documents which indicated that the briefcase belonged to Professor Koscialkowski^[64], then a member of the Polish parliament as a member of the ruling party, who later served as Finance Minister and Prime Minister. Rabbi Yosef Bendit went to Ger with the briefcase to ask the advice of the rebbe Rabbi Avraham Mordechai as to what to do with it and the large amount of money found therein.

The rebbe advised him to return the briefcase to its owner. Rabbi Yosef Bendit returned to Warsaw, went to Professor Koscialkowski, and returned the briefcase with all its contents to him. Professor Koscialkowski was amazed to see an orthodox Jew who was returning a great sum of money, serving as a paragon of honesty. The incident became the subject of great discussion among the ruling circles of Poland at the time, and served to elevate the view of the Jews among many. “Whatever you want, you just have to just ask,” Professor Koscialkowski said to Rabbi Yosef Bendit, who did not ask for or demand anything.

Rabbi Yosef Bendit's son, Rabbi Levi Kelewitz, was also an avid Hassid of Ger. He lived in Zaremba, which is near Ostroveh. He was a successful businessman and was both generous and communally involved. He established and supported a Beit Yaakov [House of Jacob] school^[65] there, and was considered one of that town's outstanding residents. During the great Holocaust, the Nazi murderers liquidated all the members of this family.

Rabbi Yaakov Schwartz exhibited wonderful personal traits and deeds, and was a man of truth. He was one of the great Hassidim of Ger in Ostroveh. He was punctilious as to the commandments, and observed them with devotion and great sacrifice. He was a successful merchant as well as a very honest man like few others. It was said that Rabbi Yaakov never uttered a falsehood in his entire life. His heart and his mouth were always in harmony. He never tricked anyone nor put on any false pretenses. Nevertheless, he ran his business successfully and experienced good fortune.

Once after a day of clearing out the inventory in his store, when he had a great deal of money in hand, he went out to perform acts of kindness to people who had appealed to him for help. He looked for other merchants who were in great trouble in order to lend them a hand. Sometimes he approached others. He would go great distances to provide funds for a person who was in need of them.

And all this he did with simplicity, without asking for anything in return. He saw himself as just a simple Jew

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without any worthy characteristics or deeds. He traveled frequently to Ger, to the rebbes, both the author of the S'fat Emet and Rabbi Avraham Mordechai, of blessed memories.

At the outbreak of World War I, Rabbi Yaakov was thought of as one of the great merchants of the city. The Russian authorities viewed him as one of the wealthiest people of the place, and therefore decided to appoint him to the list of prominent Jews who were “trustees” over the Jews of Ostroveh to see that the Jews of the city would not deviate from the orders of the authorities and would fulfill all of the demands of the harsh Russian rulers.

The governor of the district, Pentilov, a well known anti–Semite, decided to exile Rabbi Yaakov Schwartz, along with Dr. Klietschka, a highly regarded Jewish doctor, to Russia, in order to hold them as hostages until the end of the war. All efforts and interventions were of no avail. Rabbi Yaakov and Dr. Klietschka were transported via Bialystok to Russia under very difficult circumstances. Pain and great suffering were thenceforth the lot of Rabbi Yaakov. He was kept under very difficult and tortuous conditions for an extended period in Russia.

When he returned to Ostroveh after World War I he was a broken man and never managed to reestablish himself. His income kept shrinking and he was no longer considered to be among the wealthy people of the city. Nevertheless, this did not prevent him from doing acts of charity if he were in a position to do so. Jewish Ostroveh remembered his illustrious past and his good deeds in his days of prosperity, when he continued the tradition of his great father, the wealthy Rabbi Yosef Hirsh Schwartz, who had funded the building of the house of the Hassidim of Ger.

Rabbi Yaakov was elected to the council of the Jewish community on the Agudat Yisrael ticket, and for many years served as an officer of the community. It is told that once, during a debate, he heard one of the disputants stating something that did not comport with the facts. He sprang to his feet, shouting, “How can a person utter something that is not true?”

At the outbreak of the Holocaust, Rabbi Yaakov fled the city. On the road, in Zaremba, he collapsed when his strength gave out and died there, returning his pure soul to its creator.

One of the most respected men, and leader of the Mitnagdic camp in Ostroveh, was Rabbi Gedaliah David Morgenstern. He was respected and valued by all, a scholar, an activist and a meticulous observer of the commandments. Perfect in terms of his characteristics and deeds, he was one of the heads and leaders of those who prayed in the new beit midrash in Ostroveh.

Born in the city of Nowogrod near Lomza, Rabbi Gedaliah David arrived in Ostroveh at a young age, when he married the daughter of Rabbi Levi Kelewitz^[66], one of the important people in town. From then on he was considered one of its respected residents, who excelled in many areas.

He had studied in various yeshivot in Lithuania, and as a youth completed his training in Torah and teaching. In addition to this he found the time to learn Hebrew perfectly, excelling in his profound knowledge of Hebrew grammar. He also learned and mastered German, Russian and Polish. Everything that he studied he knew down to its basic core. He was diligent and did not like partial or superficial learning. Everything that he undertook he saw through to completion, never stinting on hard work.

From the time he settled in Ostrow Mazowiecka he diligently pursued his studies. He sat and studied Torah for days at a time, and until his last day he never let a single day pass without studying Torah. He made sure to attend all of his regular classes. He was so meticulous in his observance of the commandments that people who were close to him considered him a living Shulchan Aruch [Set Table, the most widely accepted digest of Jewish law]. He constantly evaluated and checked whether his deeds and actions were in conformity with the Halacha, with the explicit law, according to his understanding and outlook.

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He was a sworn opponent of Hassidim and Hassidism. His place at the new beit midrash in the city, the citadel of the Mitnagdim, was along its eastern wall [the place of honor]. He was exacting in his deeds and actions. He was thought of in town as a man of truth. He refused to sign letters to people whom he did not know. He refused to attribute titles to people to whom he wrote unless he was convinced that they actually merited those titles. He viewed it as dishonest to attribute honorific titles to people just for the sake of it, for their pleasure, or because they had gotten used to it.

Rabbi Gedaliah David Morgenstern was thought of as a man of erudition, and the scope of his knowledge was great. He knew the entire Bible by heart, and loathed those who, because of their lack of precise knowledge, mangled passages from the Bible.

The handwriting of Rabbi Gedaliah David was astonishingly beautiful. Therefore he wrote requests on behalf of Jews to the courts and to the authorities. His writing in various languages was well laid out and elegant, and his style was polished. From very founding of the Zionist movement Rabbi Gedaliah David was a member. He was among the first and among the leaders of the Zionists in the city, and was elected as a representative of Ostroveh to the Zionist Congress. He died in the year 5682 [1922] at the age of seventy.

Rabbi Mordechai Mendel Markusfeld was not among the sharpest scholars in Ostroveh and did not hold an important position in the Jewish community. He was a humble man, a simple man, modest by nature and in his very being. He loved Torah and pursued mitzvot [commandments]. He was one of the central pillars of the congregants of the old beit midrash. He did not stand out in particular and did not join any of the modern movements. A gentle spirit and a gentle soul, he was a noble and rare personage in Poland even during its glory days.

He was a shochet [ritual slaughterer] and a bodek [ritual examiner of slaughtered animals], an artisan in his profession, an expert in the laws of slaughtering and examining slaughtered animals. His work only occupied him for several hours a day. The rest of the hours he dedicated to the performance of the commandments and good deeds. His righteous wife, Mrs. Bracha, who excelled in her own good works and in her efforts on behalf of every charitable cause, was his helpmate. Both of them worked among the simple people, amcha, the masses. They loved the simple Jew and the simple Jew in Ostroveh reciprocated with love, affection and admiration.

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of the working men, most of whom worshipped in the old beit midrash.

He was a lover and pursuer of peace. He dedicated his energy and time in bringing peace to married couples, to suggest compromises and to guide them towards a happy home. His own home was always open to any guest, as Rabbi Mordechai Mendel and his wife, Mrs. Bracha, were glad for the opportunity to host guests in their home. Their home was never too small for strangers, who ate to their hearts' content at their table. He not only gave of his food, but also of his heart, which was open to all.

Rabbi Mordechai Mendel always sought to perform commandments. He worked hard for the individual, for his fellow man, seeing in each person a world unto himself, an entire world. He did not see himself as one involved in public affairs, a man of the community. But for decades he worked hard for people, for the poor and the sick, for the homeless and the needy. But he never asked for any reward for his many good deeds, never demanded any position for his many efforts. He was a Jew of the old school, performing commandments and good deeds, without any benefit for himself.

He was an impressive looking man, his white beard descending proportionately to his stature. His charm and his noble presence added much to the city. He would give encouragement to people when dark clouds covered the skies of Jewish Poland, when the whirlwind of the Holocaust approached and affected the daily lives of the Jews of Poland in general, and those of Ostroveh among them.

Rabbi Moshe was born in Ostroveh, and grew up and was educated near the outskirts of the city, which had a beautiful tradition of Torah and Hassidism and righteous deeds. His origins lay in a family of Hassidim of Warka–Otvotsk. His father was a Hassid of the rebbe Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Warka, and then a Hassid of the rebbe Rabbi Simcha Bunim of Otvotsk. As a matter of course Rabbi Moshe would frequently travel to rebbe Rabbi Simcha Bunim of Otvotsk, and after his death to his son, the rebbe Rabbi Yaakov David.

Rabbi Moshe was a merchant all his life. He was in the lumber business. He was always under pressure and his income was not a munificent one. Nevertheless, he was always satisfied with what he had, a Hassid in every fiber of his being, loyal to the Warka tradition. His many financial troubles notwithstanding, he found time to engage in the needs of the community faithfully and devotedly. He undertook his projects with enthusiasm and with a full heart, and was therefore beloved unto a great many. The residents loved Rabbi Moshe, the man of the willing heart and soul.

With the rise of the Agudat Yisrael movement, Rabbi Moshe enthusiastically joined its ranks. He was one of its best leaders, and for many years represented Agudat Yisrael on the community council. In the community he particularly stood out for his work on behalf the Maot Chitim project [which provided funds for wheat to give to the needy in order to bake matzot] in honor of the Passover holiday. Every year he worked hard to collect significant sums to dispense to the many poor so that they could celebrate the Passover holiday with ample food. There was no end to his joy when he would succeed in this mission by collecting large sums of money that enabled a respectable distribution of funds in honor of the Passover holiday. In the days that preceded Passover, Rabbi Moshe hardly paid any attention to his own business. He put aside his own source of income and was involved day and night in the Maot Chitim project.

Another area in which Rabbi Moshe involved himself was the collection of funds for firewood for the poor as winter approached. There were always devoted and loyal activists to be found in every Jewish community in Poland who were committed to undertaking this project beginning after the High Holy Days. They accepted the responsibility to provide firewood that would prevent cold and frost in the homes of the many poor. These activists were particularly concerned for the poor who had many small children or the elderly or the sick, for whom the prevention of frost was a matter of life and death.

Rabbi Moshe labored on behalf of this project. No sooner had he finished, when he was again speaking about making sure that one had to remain on guard at any cost to provide heat in the homes of the poor of Ostroveh during the winter. He was fortunate in that he not only felt the need but was also in a position to supply wood needed for this purpose, to assure that there would be a winter without suffering for the masses of poor who lived in Ostroveh.

With the conquest of the city by the Nazis, Rabbi Moshe fled along with most of the [Jewish] residents towards Soviet Russia. For a short time he suffered along with other refugees in the Russian zone of occupation in Poland. Afterwards he was exiled with many other refugees to the steppes of Siberia. There, in exile on foreign soil, he took ill and died in Siberia at the age of seventy–five, in the year 5703 [1942–1943].

The image of Rabbi Yechiel Slutsky evoked honor and admiration. He was one of the most important and outstanding residents of Ostrow Mazowiecka. He was both an activist and man of exceptional personal traits, of great spirit and soul, a personage replete with the splendor of old, of rare personal appearance that few Jews could match in a town that was a place full of personalities of stature.

He possessed exceptional personal characteristics. He never got upset and was never angry at anyone. He never overstepped his own personal serenity and the refinement of his ways. In virtual secrecy, he quietly went about

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his efforts aimed at a heavenly purpose. He despised tumult and publicity. Honors were alien to his gentle spirit and soul, which could not tolerate the loud manners of officialdom that were foreign to the beautiful tradition of pure volunteerism.

He set up a minyan [prayer group] called Tiferet Bachurim [The Glory of Young Men] in his home. And he would study with his congregants daily in regular fixed sessions. He worked hard with all his heart to instill Torah and the fear of God, fine personal attributes, and an adherence to pure Judaism into the hearts of these young men. And he did all this quietly, softly, with love and mercy, without any benefit to himself or his family whatsoever.

Rabbi Yechiel loved to perform good deeds for Jews, to do things for others with all his heart and soul. He never tired of raising money for the poor and suffering. He enthusiastically undertook various tasks, and was always careful to maintain the privacy of his actions. He preferred performing charitable deeds in secret. He believed that any such deed that was not publicly exposed was doubly or triply blessed.

As he aged he increased his good and noble deeds for others, in his work in spreading Torah and on behalf of the poor. He was an activist of the old school, who performed his tasks solely for their own sake and for the sake of the commandments, with no other intentions. He fled from honors and any official position. He worked hard on not being visible. In all the years of his work in Ostroveh, he never held any public position whatsoever.

As for himself, he studied intently. He studied in his home day and night. The lights went out very late in his room. And in the very early hours of the morning he was already studying with enthusiasm and diligence. He lived to an advanced age, but was killed in God's name in the horrific Holocaust, along with his wife.

Among the most outstanding personages of Jewish Ostroveh in the final years preceding the last world war and the destruction of its Jewish community was Rabbi Yosef Pravda. Born in Warsaw, he was married to the daughter of Rabbi Yitzchak Gershon Warshauer^[68] [Warszawer], one of the honored citizens of this city, and thus established his residence in Ostrow Mazowiecka and became one of its residents. A relatively short time thereafter, Rabbi Yosef became known far and wide. His personality added another hue to the multi–hued rainbow of Ostroveh Jewry.

From the time he was a young man he joined the first group of young men who got together in an organized fashion and became enthusiastic Hassidim under the supervision and direction of the rebbe Rabbi Avraham Mordechai of Ger. While still young in age, Rabbi Yosef Pravda stood out in these circles for his devotion and sacrifice on behalf of pure Hassidism. With all his heart and soul, and with the passion of youth, he worked hard on Torah and Hassidism. In those days it was a rare sight to see a young man, full of life and energy, become an avid Hassid, a servant of God.

In the closing days of World War I and immediately prior to that, the great changes that had befallen Polish Jewry were affecting the courts of the rebbes and their many study houses. The changing of the guard and the stormy times of the war precipitated profound unrest in Polish Jewry, which for generations had followed its established traditional path. The great shocks that affected the entire Europe were reflected in the younger generation as well as the middle–aged one. Many abandoned the tradition of the ages, seeking new paths and turning to new horizons that now appeared before the masses of Polish Jewry.

The benches of the study houses were increasingly emptied out with frightening speed. Glorious Poland, which had meticulously maintained the traditions of generations past, whereby hundreds of thousands of young men filled the study houses in every city and town, studying diligently day and night, suddenly changed its character and image. It seemed as if

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the younger generation of Polish Jews had turned their backs on Jewish tradition. Masses of them joined the Zionist movement. Even greater numbers joined revolutionary socialist movements. The benches of the study houses were just about empty.

There was the communist revolution in Russia, which followed in the wake of World War I. And the issuance of the Balfour Declaration, which promised the establishment of a Jewish national home, on the one hand, and the intensification of anti–Semitism in Poland, on the other, further strengthened the [Zionist] movement. It seemed as if the future generation of Polish Jewry had wrapped itself in a new mantle, socialist or nationalist, cutting all ties to everything in its glorious past. The sound of the Torah, which had echoed for hundreds of years all across Poland, which once emanated from the dwellings of the Jews day and night, was virtually silenced.

Even before these movements had crystallized, before this temporary change had taken hold, the rebbe Rabbi Avraham Mordechai of Ger had undertaken a comprehensive effort whose aim was to stem this abandonment of Torah and Judaism by the younger generation. This great rebbe, who had a decisive influence over hundreds of thousands of Hassidim, whose position was above and beyond that of any other traditional framework of Hassidim or Hassidism, began to organize unified groups of young men who would be brought into the great paradise of Hassidism. This was a virtual revolution that was accepted by veteran Hassidim only with great difficulty.

Since the time when Hassidism was formed, young unmarried men had held no position or standing among Hassidim or in Hassidism. The great rebbes had devoted almost no time or attention to those who came to their courts with their parents. The proper place for a young man was in the study hall, alongside an open Gemara, concentrating on its content, being diligent in learning Torah. The young man who immersed himself totally in study of the Talmud and the decisors was considered a good fellow.

The Hassidim of Poland [as opposed to orthodox Jews in Lithuania] did not accept the method of education that involved studying in [distant] higher yeshivot and the wandering of young men to study Torah outside their home communities. The Jews of Poland viewed learning in one's own home and in the [local] study house as complementary activities that were not separate from the study of the Torah or from the values that the youth received from one's parents at home in the context of the family. Removing a youth from his home, from his family circle, even for the sake of the study of Torah, was likely, according to this approach, to harm his character and his proper education and to cause harm to his spirit.

Out of all this came the negation of studying in higher yeshivot on the part of Hassidim in general. This was because the yeshivot that were far from home precluded education by the parents and the home. According to this widely accepted theory in Poland, it was incumbent upon the young man to study in the [local] study house even if it lacked the ongoing and individualized oversight of supervisors and teachers. This was based on the assumption that the diligent student would always study, even when he was not subject to official supervision, whereas the student who was not deeply committed to learning would not study even when confined within the walls of an organized yeshiva and when under the supervision of designated supervisors. The only exception was in the case of young prodigies who went to study Torah with the greatest rabbis of the times or in other exceptional circumstances.

Young men, even those from extremely ardent Hassidic families, did not study and were not introduced to the mysteries of Hassidism until they were married and were on their own. Only rarely did young men travel with their parents to rebbes for specific holidays, but even then they did not remain in the courts of the rebbes for more than a few days. Whereas veteran Hassidim would remain in the courts of rebbes for long periods, the young men would be returned to their homes immediately after the particular Sabbath or holiday. The proper place for a young man even from the most ardent Hassidic families was in front of the Gemara and not in the court of the rebbe.

Both older and younger Hassidim studied and prayed the houses of the Hassidim, which became in effect their second homes. They would frequently take meals there as well, whether connected with religious celebrations or on other occasions. They spent entire days and nights within the walls of these houses of Hassidim. This was not true

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of the younger men, the sons of the older Hassidim. They studied and spent their entire time in the city's study hall, the place where the young men of the city or neighborhood would gather to study. Only rarely, for the Sabbath or holidays, did they come to the houses of the Hassidim to pray with their parents.

Shortly before fundamental changes took place in Polish Jewry, the rebbe Rabbi Avraham Mordechai of Ger saw in advance what was likely to happen. He changed the accepted methods of Hassidim, to the shock of the masses of older Hassidim who flocked to him. He began to bring the youth closer, to introduce them to the mysteries of pure Hassidism, to encourage them to organize and unite in fixed groups. Young men would now remain in the court of the rebbe of Ger for weeks and months at a time, studying Hassidism, working on the improvement of their personal traits, and engaging in the service of God with real enthusiasm, much like older and elderly Hassidim.

They were given preference by the rebbe over veteran Hassidim, who initially did not look upon these changes favorably and nor understand the need for them. It took a few years before these people came to agree with their rabbi, the great rebbe. Thousands of young people were thus saved for Judaism, for Torah. They became a loyal legion for pure Hassidism. One of the first and most outstanding of these was Rabbi Yosef Pravda, even before he moved to Ostroveh. Rabbi Yosef came to the city as a man young in years, but also as a veteran Hassid with a deep understanding of and an articulated position on all the problems that were on the agenda.

The bright young men of Ger were trained to study a great deal, to dig deep into Hassidism and the fundamental problems of Judaism and of ethics. Most of all they were educated for devotion and real self–sacrifice on behalf of holy and eternal goals. They were taught to negate the material. And first and foremost among material things was themselves. No sacrifice was too great for them in order to attain the goal that they established for themselves in their lives, that is to ascend higher and higher in pure Hassidism and holiness, to become true servants of God, to overcome indecent impulses and selfish motivations.

They did not know the difference between day and night. They always, at any hour of the day, worked hard on their Hassidism, while not neglecting their study of the Torah. The great rebbe disparaged illiteracy and ignorance. They adhered to their teacher with every fiber of their being. They were always prepared to traverse fire and water at the slightest intimation from the lips of the rebbe. In a very brief time the rebbe of Ger established an iron legion that served as a support for Torah Judaism in all of Poland up until the outbreak of the Holocaust. And in his footsteps other rebbes followed suit.

Rabbi Yosef Pravda was a symbol and an iconic example of a young man of Ger, who became a leader among his people in Ostroveh, the town where he lived. He loved Torah and studied diligently with the enthusiasm of holiness, but was also aware of everything. He loved books and delved into them, especially books on thoughts that crystallized the basic ideas of Hassidism in Poland, be they books on Hassidism or books by the Maharal of Prague^[69], etc. From his great teacher, the rebbe of Ger, he learned to love books. He acquired a large library, and never passed up a valuable one without looking into it and reviewing its contents.

But he also remained at his core an ardent Hassid. He traveled to Ger frequently, where he received further inspiration to learn from the rebbe of Ger. His prayers were said with enthusiasm and without self–interest. He aspired to greatness, all the while convinced that he had yet to achieve anything, that he was an empty vessel that still needed much work. He was a person with superior personal traits, which he used to evaluate himself and his deeds. And he always came to the same conclusions, those of a true Hassid, that his actions were still flawed. Thus, his greatest and most fundamental concern was that he not turn into a “nice Jew”, that is, that he not succumb to pride, as pride was likely to bring him down.

The true Hassid never belongs to himself, is not his own personal possession. He always is subservient to his teacher, the rebbe, and to the congregation of Hassidim. As a practical matter, he learns the meaning of self–abnegation in the court of the rebbe,

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where the group of Hassidim that surround him constantly keep a sharp eye on the Hassid, lest he become a reality in and of himself. For only in the absence of such a self–centered reality does the hope of correcting the flaws of a person and the repair of his characteristics and deeds, as well as the hope of his ascension and true service to God, still reside. Rabbi Yosef Pravda was a genuine product of this holy undertaking, a true Hassid.

For a short time he resided at the home of his father–in–law. Once he became independent he opened an iron products store and was successful, being thought of as a prosperous man who had a substantial income. He did not keep his money all to himself. He was a generous benefactor who contributed generously to every charity, and who donated, as a true Polish Hassid, as if his money was not really his and his donations were not merely the gifts of his own heart. It was as if he received funds for the purpose of giving them away, to share them with others. He was one of those who was not only called upon to give, but who also felt that it was incumbent upon him to do so, whether in the house of the Hassidim or in the community. They were commanded, as it were, to give, and accepted this demand as an order which could not be challenged or doubted.

Rabbi Yosef became a successful merchant. But this did not free him from giving charity. He donated and worked hard to raise funds from others, too. He performed good deeds and caused others to do so as well. He frequently left his place of business to circulate among the homes of residents in order to perform charitable acts. More than once he was sent by an organization to nearby towns and cities to collect for various urgent needs, such as to provide funds for the marriage of the daughter of a poor Hassid or for the needs of someone who was ill. It was not only money that he provided. He was also was available for any good deed that actually needed to be done. It was something that was taken as a given by Rabbi Yosef as a true Hassid who aspired to perfection.

His home was open to all, Hassidim and non–Hassidim alike, people he knew and those whom he did not know. They considered his home as their place of refuge, as something quite natural. After all Rabbi Yosef Pravda belonged to the community, to all Hassidim. And he was delighted to welcome guests, receiving them with joy and enthusiasm. For why does a person have a home if not to have guests? And why does a person have doors in his house if not to open them freely to all who seek entry? Rabbi Yosef did not view himself as one who welcomed guests as part of the commandment to do so. Fulfilling that obligation was still a long way off. He was still at the stage of aspiring to attain it. He was a servant of God.

Rabbi Yosef was sensible and wise. He succeeded in developing ties with the officials of the government, so that he might be able to help others, to take advantage of these contacts in times of need. So Rabbi Yosef became an unofficial shtadlan. He would often appear in government offices when he was asked by a Jew to do so. Willingly and joyously, without viewing himself as a shtadlan, without even making people aware that he was doing anything. After all, everything in life is a matter of being a representative, in a variety of many different and varied capacities. Helping another person is serving as a representative, and nothing more, a representation in order to perform one of the 613 commandments in the Torah.

As were many of the Hassidim of Ger, Rabbi Yosef was a member of Agudat Yisrael, a very loyal and devoted one. He saw in Agudat Yisrael the demand of the hour, and it was necessary to do everything to strengthen its foundations and increase its power. It was a holy obligation from which no Jew was exempt. Rabbi Yosef served as a loyal soldier at the service of Agudat Yisrael. He went out on every mission that was asked of him and did whatever he was asked to do. He never dodged his duty. Often, during decisive election periods, he went around making enthusiastic speeches, and proved to be a popular speaker who knew how to attract his listeners. He did everything in his power on behalf of Agudat Yisrael, but never saw himself as a leader, but rather as just a regular person who did his part.

At the outbreak of the last world war the Germans bombed Ostrow Mazowiecka ferociously. The first bomb that hit the city fell on the house of Rabbi Yosef Pravda. His son, Yitzchak Gershon, was killed on the spot, as was another young man whom he had taken into his home, as well as a guest he had been hosting, Reb Leib Yarmus. These were the first losses that Jewish Ostroveh suffered at the outbreak of the horrific Holocaust. Rabbi Yosef was wounded badly, and was not able to recover and get out of bed.

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In those mad and difficult times, when Rabbi Yosef was already confined to bed, this ardent Hassid revealed the greatness of his soul and the breadth of his heart. Despite the extreme pain that never left him, he continued to serve God enthusiastically and out of love and with true loyalty to his creator. On the 29^th day of Cheshvan, in the year 5700 [November 11, 1939], when the Nazi monsters killed the remaining Jews of Ostroveh, Rabbi Yosef Pravda (may God avenge his blood) was killed in the name of God, along with his distinguished, pious and elderly wife, with whom he had shared his life.

Thought to be one of the richest Jews in Ostrow Mazowiecka and its environs both near and far in the years before World War I was Rabbi Mendel Lichtenstein, son of Rabbi Zundel Lichtenstein, one of the first Hassidim and one of the greatest of the Kotsk Hassidim in Ostroveh. Rabbi Mendel had inherited from his father an iron and construction materials business. He developed his business to the point where it attained very substantial dimensions that exceeded the usual ones in the city and region. He was a successful and honest businessman, a man of many principles and ideas.

Rabbi Menachem Mendel was a Hassid, who prayed and studied in the Hassidic house of Ger in town and who traveled to see the rebbe of Ger, author of the S'fat Emet. In that large Hassidic house he built an ark of wrought iron that he paid for, and did not stint in his efforts to beautify that house of worship. He was deeply involved in charity and always responded to requests. He was interested in participating in every charitable endeavor, in responding to everyone who asked, so much so that fundraisers never skipped his house nor forgot his address, which was well known throughout the county of Lomza and beyond.

He was by nature a good man. He was always ready to assist others, whether it was a businessman just starting out to help him get his enterprise established or someone who truly needed a helping hand. He had a special ledger for his charitable work. Over time he came to administer in effect a permanent [interest free] charitable loan fund out of his own money. Borrower after borrower, he never tired of helping others. Despite his great wealth, his charitable endeavors became the centerpiece of his activities. Wealth did not change the mentality of the rich Jews of Ostroveh in those days, who knew who their true master was, nor did it change their way of life, which resembled in every respect those of the rest of the Jews who resided there, most of whom were hard up to make a living. The rich and the poor alike rejected luxury, and did not speak in a boastful or bragging manner. They maintained their Jewish way of life, one that was profoundly modest.

Rabbi Mendel Lichtenstein had an open door for guests and the poor, who visited his residence frequently. The wife of Rabbi Mendel was known for her willingness to provide food to all who needed it. She was good hearted and spared no effort to provide ample nourishment to the hungry and to guests, both the unimportant people as well as the important ones.

Some years after World War I Rabbi Mendel Lichtenstein passed way^[70]. His heir and the one who continued in his ways was his son, Rabbi Bendit Lichtenstein, also a Ger Hassid, who inherited from his father a portion of his wealth and his business. It was said that at the outbreak of World War I Rabbi Mendel Lichtenstein had transferred one hundred fifty thousand rubles in gold to the government bank in St. Petersburg for safe keeping. According to this story, these funds were lost to him and Rabbi Mendel never succeeded in recouping them. Nevertheless, the family still had a substantial fortune.

Rabbi Bendit continued in the footsteps of his father. He gave to charity and did right by many. When he married off one of his daughters, he arranged meals for the poor and needy during the entire week of the wedding celebrations, and fed them well. In the Holocaust Rabbi Bendit and most of his family were killed.

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Rabbi Pinchas Leib

For many decades before the outbreak of World War I a short, elderly man, Rabbi Pinchas Leib, regularly sat in the old house of study in Ostroveh. He had come to town from one of the villages in the area and studied day and night. It was said of him that he knew the entire Talmud, as well as the earlier and later commentaries, by heart. He was a great and extraordinary scholar. He ate very little, did not engage in conversation with others very much, viewing his entire world as contained in his studies. His main aim in life was to help the young men in the beit midrash with their studies. As long as there were still young men sitting in the study hall, he did not leave. He sat and studied and waited until one of them would come over and ask him something about his studies.

He replied to all who asked him for help with great joy. It did not matter what the question was, whether a sharp query about something in the Talmud, or a question of Jewish law, or just a clarification of no particular significance. In moments such as these his eyes lit up with a glow, as if he had received some great unanticipated prize, as if he had attained the ultimate goal of his life. He answered willingly, with a giving heart, and did not tire of repeating his answer. Despite his advanced age, despite the weakness that was taking its toll on Rabbi Pichas Leib in the latter years of his life, he maintained his great patience and his generosity of spirit towards the young men who imposed upon him occasionally with meaningless questions.

The Torah and the study of Torah were the purpose and substance of the life of Rabbi Pinchas Leib and of others in that period. For Rabbi Pinchas Leib there was nothing other than confines of the Torah that was important. His joy and his pain, his suffering and his happiness he invested in his Torah. The idea that he was contributing something to the increased learning of the Torah, to the understanding of the Torah on the part of young men, the recognition that he was doing a mitzvah with his own knowledge of the Torah, filled his heart with great happiness and satisfaction. Even if young men were to stand beside him and ask their questions day and night, Rabbi Pinchas Leib would never tire, never need sleep or food. He was capable of standing twenty–four hours a day to provide others with his knowledge of the Torah with joy.

Up until the very last day of his long life Rabbi Pinchas Leib fulfilled this mission of his. His weakness and perhaps even his illness did not prevent him from doing so. He became an integral part of the life of the old study house, which was filled with Torah and studiers of the Torah day and night. And one night, he left the old study house for his home and returned to his soul to its maker.

The image of Rabbi Eliyahu Lach was one that evoked respect and affection. He was one of the outstanding residents of Ostrow Mazowiecka, a scholar and a Hassid, a community leader and businessman, a man of righteousness and exemplary character. He was a Jew with a precious spirit and a precious soul, beloved by all and accepted by all. He was one of those who engendered feelings of honor and affection towards Hassidim in general, and towards himself in particular.

Rabbi Eliyahu Lach was a man of rare distinguished appearance. His black beard descended proportionately, while his broad forehead attested to the broad thinking of the man. His large, wise eyes indicated a good heart, while his appearance inspired respect and symbolized his beautiful and aristocratic inner self, which few had like him, even in those days when there still were hundreds of Hassidim and doers of good works around, good and dear Jews in the cities and towns of the great Polish Disapora. In those days there were still many who functioned

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on the basis of fine and exceptional character traits.

Rabbi Eliyahu was a Hassid of Amshinov, one of the heads of this respected community in Ostroveh. He was one of the trusted supporters of the rebbe Rabbi Menachem and afterwards of the rebbe Rabbi Yosef. During the time when the rebbe Rabbi Yosef served as chief of the rabbinical court in Ostroveh, Rabbi Eliyahu became tied to him with deep bonds of love and affection. Rabbi Eliyahu served as the central address for the Amshinov Hassidim in the city. The source of the actual expression of the Amshinov way derived in large part from the Hassidism of Warka, i.e., good and noble personal character traits and a devotion to the good of both the community and individuals; a good and empathetic heart; true modesty, combined with assertiveness and exuberance in whatever one does. It was a Hassidism that purified every aspect of the Hassid.

Rabbi Eliyahu Lach was a Hassid but also a man of action. He was the address for anyone who needed help among the Amshinov Hassidim in the city and its nearby and extended environs. There were many poor and needy in the community of Amshinov Hassidim in the area of Ostroveh. Many of them were grateful to Rabbi Eliyahu for his great help with everything he turned to. He was both the doer and the deed. He never turned anyone down. He would help one person marry off his son, a second to escape from poverty and distress, and a third to establish himself and earn a living. And all this he did with humility and modesty, without any publicity. Rabbi Eliyahu liked the idea of giving anonymously, of doing things without revealing to anyone what he was doing. He kept these secrets until his dying day.

He was full of confidence [in God] and faith, and exhibited an inner joy and true happiness. He believed deeply that all troubles and suffering were merely tests that ultimately would be swiftly reversed. He always had a smile and a radiant face for everyone. He would infect anyone who came into contact with him with his surety and faith. His words were usually interwoven with the words of the sages, with witticisms from the great minds of Israel. He would cite relevant scripture and infuse them into every conversation. He saw everything through the lens of a Torah–oriented outlook. When gloomy clouds loomed over the skies over Polish Jewry, such as when the state authorities openly encouraged an economic boycott against [Jewish] merchants and their situation worsened from day to day, Rabbi Eliyahu continued to exude confidence and faith and insisted that people wait for good days to return soon. The bad days would soon pass like shadows; they would disappear and never return.

Rabbi Eliyahu Lach was a successful merchant, who attained wealth and a generous income. His only daughter he married off to the Gaon Rabbi David Mintzberg, of excellent stock. He supported his son–in–law for many years, so that he might devote all his time to the study of Torah and the performance of good deeds without having any worries or concerns. Seven daughters were born to Rabbi David and his wife, the daughter of Rabbi Eliyahu, who took care of all their needs generously and willingly. He worked devotedly on behalf of his son–in–law and the members of his family.

He was a lover of Torah and a supporter of those who studied it. Not a day passed when Rabbi Eliyahu did not devote some of his time to Torah, to a regular class, while he also found time for communal work, whether for the benefit of an individual or the public. From the time of the establishment of the Agudat Yisrael movement, Rabbi Eliyahu joined it enthusiastically. For many years he represented Agudat Yisrael and the orthodox community on the community council, to which he had been elected. Despite the fact that he was a party man, he rejected conflict and divisiveness, and avoided any wrangling. He did not hate even those who did not agree with his philosophy and outlook, as he was unable to hate anyone, any person, even the worst among them. The love of the people of Israel that reverberated in his heart left no room for personal hatreds or enmity. Nevertheless, his gentle heart and natural flexibility did not prevent him from adhering to fundamental opposition to all the secular political movements that had arisen in the Jewish community.

It was in his work for the orthodox community, for Agudat Yisrael, that Rabbi Eliyahu fulfilled his main interests in pure orthodox Jewish education and his concern for its strengthening. Much of his time and treasure he dedicated to the establishment of the Beit Yaakov school for girls, an orthodox institution

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that educated hundreds of girls in Torah and a strict orthodox outlook. There were times when Rabbi Eliyahu just about maintained that institution out of his own pocket. He worked devotedly in this sacred task up until the horrific Holocaust that destroyed Polish Jewry in its entirety as well as all the institutions and programs that had been built, maintained and tended with so much effort and sweat, devotedly and with much self–sacrifice by trusted and dedicated leaders.

When the horrific Holocaust was approaching and struck, and many people fled out of desperation, Rabbi Eliyahu maintained his smile, his burning faith and his great confidence. Because of the Nazi barbarians he was forced to leave the city of his residence, escaping to the Soviet zone of occupation in Poland, where he died when the Germans conquered that area from the Russians.

Among the community of Kotsk Hassidim, one of the outstanding people was Rabbi Leibel Lichtenstein, a scholar and true Hassid, whose entire life was dedicated to Torah and pure Hassidism. Throughout his entire life he never strayed from the bounds of Torah. He was of those exceptional few who excelled both in his wisdom and great personal characteristics, a man full of self–sacrifice and devotion. He was a Hassid who left the worry and burden of supporting his family to his righteous wife, while he devoted his entire life to spiritual growth. He abstained from honors and position, from wealth and money, from all comfort and pleasure in life whatsoever. He was a Jew for whom no sacrifice or effort was too great to attain perfection, complete control over his behavior and character, and full oversight over his very existence and his desires.

In the year 5635 [1874–1875] a son was born to Rabbi Leibel the Hassid, Mordechai or “Motel”, as he was called from that point on. Rabbi Motel was a wonderful and outstanding boy from his earliest days. He was fearful of heaven and of committing any sin, wise but inherently reticent, with exceptional abilities. He was only nine years old when he already knew the entire tractate of Berachot by heart, along with the commentary of Rabbi Jonah. He acquired extensive knowledge of the Torah, whether it was through his abilities or his great diligence. The excellent student always sat and studied. He completed his studies with his teachers at the cheder and quickly proceeded to the Hassidic house. He sat and learned without any supervision, solely motivated by his own will. The Gaon and Hassid Rabbi Ben–Zion, head of the Hassidim in Ostroveh, recognized something in this excellent boy, and began to draw him in and supervise him. When he was nine his father took him to see the rebbe, the author of the S'fat Emet, in Ger, and this wonderful boy became a Hassid. In the year 5650 [1889–1890] he married the daughter of Rabbi David Aharon Grudka [Grudke], one of the important residents of Goworowo and one of the leaders of the Alexander Hassidim there.

After his marriage Rabbi Motel intensified his diligence and perseverance, not desisting from his studies day or night. In the first years after his marriage he was supported by his father–in–law. After that his righteous wife undertook the burden of supporting the family. She ran a store and engaged in various businesses, while Rabbi Motel devoted all his time to Torah and good works. His name as an excellent scholar spread far and wide, to the point where a position as a rabbi and teacher of Halacha was offered to him in Praga, adjacent to Warsaw. Rabbi Motel turned it down, as did his wife, who wholeheartedly wished her husband to continue to concentrate on his studies, as she had no thoughts whatsoever of divesting herself of the burden of earning a living.

Rabbi Motel continued his studies in Goworowo for more than twenty years. Every day he virtually fasted, and did not take time to eat anything until the break between afternoon prayers and

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evening prayers. Throughout the morning hours he sat and learned with young men, as well as studying by himself. Not a second was wasted. All the days of his life were filled with Torah. He frequently traveled to visit the rebbe of Ger, author of the S'fat Emet, or his son, the rebbe Rabbi Avraham Mordechai. He would leave on his trip in the early days of the month of Elul [ca. September–October] and remain in Ger until Chanukah [ca. December–January]. Between Chanukah and the month of Elul he would travel there several times a year, for Purim or for the latter days of Passover, for the holiday of Shavuot or for no particular event, or for a Sabbath, or just for a few weeks.

He was always devoted to his studies and his intense efforts. On Friday evening, during the years when he was still in Goworowo, he would study until midnight, even in the short days of winter, and only then did he recite the Sabbath kiddush [sanctification] and eat a meal. He spoke very little with other people. He was reticent and his words were few and measured. He spoke with wisdom and understanding, but he always kept his own counsel, and fully observed the basic principle of Hassidism: “Do not look outwards, and do not look into the affairs of others.” He was interested in what was happening in the world. He listened, but was then silent. He was always rushing to return to his work, i.e., his studies.

In the year 5674 [1914], with the outbreak of World War I, he left Goworowo and returned to his city of origin, Ostroveh. In his new place of residence, as before, he sat and learned day and night, mostly in the Hassidic house of Ger. He studied in regular sessions with the Gaon Rabbi Avraham Petziner and with the Gaon Rabbi David Mintzberg, while his wife continued to engage in business and to manage the affairs of the household. His noble wife had a courageous spirit. During this period they experienced hard times, and they often did not have sufficient food. His wife fasted for entire days and did not reveal her secret of the lack of means to Rabbi Motel, who continued learning enthusiastically. A few years later in 5682 [1921–1922], after his wife had succeeded in stabilizing their financial situation, her new store burned down. She wanted to open another business, and asked her husband to seek the advice of his teacher and rabbi, the rebbe Rabbi Avraham Mordechai of Ger. The rebbe listened to his question and answered him saying, “Why do you need this business? It would be better if you went to the Land of Israel.” As a trusting and loyal Hassid, Rabbi Motel did not hesitate much, nor did his righteous wife hesitate or object, even though this was not to her liking. They decided to sell everything they owned and to immigrate to the Land of Israel with their savings and their two sons, Leibel and Chaim Dov.

The Gaon and Hassid Rabbi Ben–Zion, Rabbi Motel's guide and teacher, traveled twice to Ger to try to change the decision of the rebbe, but he did not succeed. The rebbe Rabbi Avraham Mordechai said to him, “I cannot prevent Rabbi Motel from doing such a good thing.” In the year 5682 [1921–1922] Rabbi Motel arrived in Tel Aviv, acquired a house and established his residence in that city. Only once did he travel back to Poland for a visit, and quickly returned to the Land of Israel.

The house of Rabbi Motel in Tel Aviv became a center for all the Hassidim who had immigrated to the Land of Israel in those days. For twelve years the house served as a meeting place for Ger Hassidim in the city. Rabbi Motel lived on rents and from the money he brought from Ostroveh, and his wife managed the household successfully. There were always guests staying there, and there were those who were supported in that way for years. Rabbi Motel and his family gave all those who sought his shelter a warm welcome. Sometimes Hassidim would hold their meals for special occasions there. A day did not go by in all the years that Rabbi Motel resided in Tel Aviv that there were not guests visiting his home or eating at his table.

As in Goworowo and in Ostroveh, in Tel Aviv Rabbi Motel sat and studied. All those around him knew

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that he was an excellent and distinguished scholar, who knew the Talmud and the decisors by heart, a veritable treasure chest filled with all the subject matter of the Torah, and that he was a true Hassid with exceptional values. But Rabbi Motel continued in his way, in his silence, listening to all but mostly staying quiet. He liked silence, and despised chatter and wasting time. In the year 5694 [1933–1934] he relocated to Jerusalem. He sold his house in Tel Aviv and bought one in Jerusalem, from which he made a living until his final day.

Before the outbreak of the last world war his righteous wife died in Jerusalem. Rabbi Motel lived long and reached an exceptionally old age. Amid admiration and honor, he died on the ninth day of Av in the year 5721 [July 21–22, 1961] in Jerusalem as one of the leaders and giants of the community of Ger Hassidim in the Land of Israel.

Rabbi Menachem Mendel Semiatitzky [Siemiatycki] was a wise man and a Hassid, a lover his fellow Jews and of the Torah. He was one of the leading citizens of the city and one of the special personalities in Ostrow Mazowiecka. He arrived there when he was still young, when he married the daughter of Reb Binyamin Freyman [Frejman], a painting contractor and respected resident^[71]. For many years Rabbi Menachem Mendel studied ardently while being supported by his father–in–law. When Reb Binyamin died [per the records, in 1906] his sons, the brothers–in–law of Rabbi Mendel, took over the contracting business. As Rabbi Mendel's share of the inheritance he received an interest in a house near a wall that Rabbi Binyamin had left which had several apartments, from which he eked out a living.

He was an outstanding scholar, one of the devoted Hassidim of Ger, and well versed in speaking, at which he excelled. Rabbi Mendel traveled to the United States^[72], where he lived for several years and where he appeared as a guest speaker in synagogues. After a while he returned to Ostroveh and published a book of his lectures entitled, Divrei Menachem [The Words of Menachem]. His book was full of pearls of his oratory and witticisms that attested to the greatness of Rabbi Menachem in Torah.

There were always novellae and witticisms coming out of his mouth. He was always innovative in terms of his lectures. People listened to him with interest and enjoyed his scholarship. When asked about a marriage match, for example, he proceeded to say, “ ‘For this should every righteous person pray to you, and when he finds it, no flood of water shall reach him' (Psalms 32).’ We learn in the Gemara that Rabbi Hanina says that the words ‘when he finds it’ refers to a wife. But the meaning is not clear. How does the concept of prayer relate to a marriage? And how does a wife relate to a flood of water? We know that Sennacherib^[73] took four hundred young men and women captive. When they realized what would become of them, the girls committed suicide by jumping into water, into the depths of the sea, where there are floods of water. And it is said that their reward, when they would be returned to the world, it would be as women who rule over their husbands. And for this we pray, for a worthy and moral wife, and not for a flood of water, for those who sacrificed their lives for God and would rule over their husbands.”

Rabbi Menachem Mendel was a true servant of God. For a long while before he began his prayers he worked devotedly to prepare his heart and his soul for prayer. Tears flowed from his eyes, and he trembled out of fear and awe. He was a man full of devotion, but also full of joy.

When he returned from America he opened a store in Ostroveh with the money he had earned. But he soon embarked on another long journey. When he returned he felt weak and ill. Not long after, Rabbi Mendel passed away in the prime of his years, to the regret of the many who admired and respected him^[74].

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Rabbi Leib Zukrovitz

Rabbi Leibel Zukrovitz [Cukrowicz], like his brothers Rabbis Anshel and Moshe Hirsh, were among the first Ger Hassidim in the city, and among the most respected of the residents of Ostroveh. In his youth Rabbi Leibel married one of the girls from the village of Zalisz [Zalesie], which is in the Ostrow Mazowiecka area. He remained in the village for twenty years being supported by his Torah–loving father–in–law, without any worries about making a living. In this period he reached greater heights in Torah and in pure Hassidism. He would frequently travel to the courts of the tzadikim of Ger, the rebbe who was the author of Chidushei Harim, the rebbe Rabbi Chanoch Henich Hacohen of Alexander, and the rebbe of Ger who was the author of the S'fat Emet, as well as his son the rebbe.

Rabbi Leibel was thought of as one of the greatest Hassidim, an exalted person with a sharp and profound mind, wise and insightful, who understood that which was before him but also delved deeper. He was respected by the rebbes of Ger and by the masses of Hassidim, who spoke his name with admiration and affection. After the period when he was supported by his father–in–law, Rabbi Leibel moved to Ostroveh, but he did not turn to business or to a rabbinical position, even though he was a great and distinguished scholar. He dedicated all his time up until his last day to Torah and Hassidism, and never left the confines of Torah and good deeds.

He served as prayer leader in the great house of the Ger Hassidim in Ostroveh. He officiated at the mussaf services on holidays and on the High Holy Days. His voice was very pleasant and moved the hearts of all who heard him. Up until a very advanced age he maintained this ability. In the last year of his life, when he had already was in the throes of his final illness and was no longer able to get out of bed, he was brought to the house of the Hassidim in his bed, which was set down next to the pulpit, where he began his last prayer as cantor. Rabbi Leibel died in the year 5685 [1924–1925] at a very old age^[75].

His brother, Rabbi Anshel Zukrovitz, lived for some years in the town of Ciechanowiec. He, too, was among the veteran and senior Hassidim in Ostroveh. In his youth he visited the rebbe who was the author of Chidushei Harim, and after his death to his successors as rebbe. He was a precious Jew who had a good heart. He sold matzot shmurah [specially supervised matzot for Passover], eking out a bare living. His brother, Rabbi Hirsh, was also among the senior Hassidim in Ostrow Mazowiecka. He was a beloved Jew with fine personal traits and praiseworthy behavior.

Among the first group of Kotsk Hassidim in Ostroveh the image of Rabbi Yeshayahu Augustover [Augustower] stood out. Born in Augustow in Lithuania, he joined the community of Hassidim and became one of its best known and most outstanding members, one of the sharpest in this community of sharp Hassidim.

Behind the sharp and assertive exterior of Rabbi Yeshayahu there lay a big heart, a good and merciful one, one with exceptional personal traits that were hidden behind a cloak of an austere visage. It was said of the Kotsk Hassidim that while they were meticulous about resisting any inclination towards sin, it was nevertheless easier to find sins among them than the performance of the commandments, even though they were performing the commandments all the time, day and night. But they worked with great determination, consistency and diligence to conceal their [performance of] the commandments and good deeds from the gaze of others.

They said of Rabbi Yeshayahu that he was a great scholar, an expert in all the fields of knowledge of the Torah, but also

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one who delved deeply into matters as few others. Nevertheless he did not show off his greatness in Torah to others, even to the Hassidim who were close to him. Only on extremely rare occasions, in special lighter moments, would he reveal his greatness in Torah indirectly, to the amazement of others.

Rabbi Yeshayahu served as prayer leader in the Kotsk Hassidic house in Ostroveh. He died at a ripe old age^[76].

One of the first of the Warka Hassidim in Ostroveh was Reb Eliyahu Feivel Petrushka [Petruszka or Pietruszka], a typical Hassid of the older generation. He was a dear Jew who walked a straight line, not straying a whit from the path of pure Hassidism. He was tied to that pure Hassidism with every fiber of his heart and soul. He was meticulous in his observance of the commandments and sought them out. He worked hard throughout his long life on the purity of his actions and works.

Reb Eliyahu Feivel was born in the year 5580 [1819–1820]^[77], and already in his youth joined the sect of Hassidim of the rebbe Rabbi Yitzchak of Warka. When he was young he learned the skill as a concrete worker in construction, and all the days of his life he worked faithfully as a simple workman with his hands. His difficult and tiring work did not interfere with his Torah and pure Hassidism. In the early morning and in the evening, after a hard day at work, he made his way to the house of the Hassidim. He remained there for many hours engaging in Torah and Hassidism. The essence of his life was pure Hassidism in the style of Warka.

He did his work faithfully. He worked for himself, as an independent contractor. This enabled him to stop his work whenever he heard an inspiring Hassidic story or a saying of Torah from one of the rebbes. He would then put aside his work tools, and would abandon for a few moments the lower world, the world of work, hardship and bitterness, for the upper worlds of holiness and purity, of Hassidism and Torah.

Reb Eliyahu Feivel attained an incredibly advanced age. He died in Warsaw in the year 5675 [1914–1915], having lived ninety–five years^[78]. Up until his last day he maintained his set ways of life. For some eighty years he would enthusiastically visit the house of the Warka rebbe. He adhered to his teachers with all his heart and his pure soul, with his innate modesty, and full of grace and glory he covered himself in the dust of the feet of the tzadikim. His was an image of purity that was devoted entirely to the great mission, one that did not seek anything for himself nor think of himself whatsoever. He believed with all his heart that there was no one in the world more flawed in his character and deeds than he, and that he was far from even a whiff of Torah and Hassidism. So he had to work hard, to repent sincerely each day in order to purify his flawed body and soul.

Reb Simcha Bunim Landau had seven sons, all God–fearing and very accomplished men. He was one of the loyal and devoted Hassidim of Ger, who made his living as a notary in the towns of the Ostroveh region. From time to time Reb Simcha Bunim would come into nearby Ostroveh, where he was among those near to the Gaon and Hassid Rabbi Ben–Zion Rabinowitz, one of the greatest Hassidim of recent generations.

Reb Simcha Bunim sent some of his gifted sons

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to Ostroveh so that they might study regularly with Rabbi Ben–Zion, while during the remaining hours they would study with other young men in the Ger house of Hassidim. One of his sons, Rabbi Avraham Pinchas, was among the best students of Rabbi Ben–Zion in terms of Torah and Hassidism, and was ultimately considered one of the most outstanding Hassidim. For economic reasons and for the lack of opportunities to make a living in Poland, he immigrated––with the permission of the rebbe of Ger––to London, where he set up house. Rabbi Avraham Pinchas did credit to his faith by virtue of his deeds, his manner, his interactions, and in everything he did in England at that time. He was full of devotion and self–sacrifice for Torah and Hassidism, for the fear of God and the fear of sin. Despite his long hours in business, not a day went by when he did not work on his Torah for many hours, in an exhausting way, with intensity and devotion. When his business imposed on him unduly, he would quickly go off to some quiet place and invest himself with all his senses in the study of Torah for an entire day or more in a closed place, where no one could bother him. He fully believed that after he isolated himself in the Torah, that complex business matters would become clear. Even in London he did not abandon pure Hassidism. From time to time he visited Ger, to the court of his teacher, the rebbe who had brought him near and who loved him so much, and who saw in him a loyal Hassid, a true Hassid. Rabbi Avraham Pinchas founded the Agudat Yisrael movement in England and worked on behalf of Torah and Judaism in London. He died during the last world war and left behind his sons, Rabbi Yitzchak Meir of blessed memory, Rabbi Simcha Bunim, and Rabbi Noach, who continue their father's legacy.

The brother of Rabbi Avraham Pinchas, Rabbi Yitzchak Meir, settled in Ostrow Mazowiecka during World War I. He was an outstanding and wonderful Hassid. He was a scholar like few others, who was considered knowledgeable in Torah and Hassidism, wise and insightful, with exceptional personal traits. He was a merchant who worked for a living. He was very close to the Gaon and Hassid Rabbi Ben–Zion, and moved his residence to Ostroveh to be near to him.

He was extremely diligent, learning entire days and nights, working hard with all his might on Torah and Hassidism. He was considered important and honored by his teacher, the rebbe of Ger who authored the S'fat Emet, and after the latter's demise was counted among the most loyal and devoted Hassidim of the rebbe Rabbi Avraham Mordechai of Ger. There were times when Rabbi Yitzchak Meir would sit and learn for eighteen hours a day. He would barely sleep or eat. He was a man of devotion and self–sacrifice, as if he were prepared and ready to sacrifice his soul for his maker, for Torah and pure Judaism, without straying from it one iota.

After World War I he fell ill with a terminal disease. He was confined to bed for nearly five years, to the despair of his loyal friends and companions and his many acquaintances and admirers among the Ger Hassidim. Even when lying in his sick bed he did not cease to learn, working hard on the Torah even when he was afflicted with suffering, like a good student of the rebbe Rabbi Baruch of Chizov [Czyzewo], with whom he studied as a child. Rabbi Yitzchak Meir died with a fine reputation on the sixteenth day of Tevet 5688 [January 8–9, 1928] in Ostroveh. He was fifty–nine years old at his death. He left a daughter, who was later married to Reb Simcha Bunim Shafranowitz [Szafranowicz], one of best of Ostroveh, who after the Holocaust immigrated to Israel^[79].

A third brother among the sons of Rabbi Simcha Bunim Landau, Rabbi Pesach, was also a resident of Ostroveh. And he, too, was one of the students of Rabbi Ben–Zion. He was a precious Jew, a Hassid of Ger, who also died in the prime of his life at the age of forty–seven in Ostroveh.

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Rabbi Tzvi Hirsh Fabianitzer

Among the group of Hassidim of Sokolow in Ostrow Mazowiecka, the persona of Rabbi Tzvi Hirsh Fabianitzer stood out. He established his home in Ostroveh after he married the daughter of Rabbi Mendel Meizlish [Majzlic], one of the distinguished citizens in town. Rabbi Hirshel was one of the most ardent Hassidim of the rebbe Rabbi Yisrael of Pilov^[80], and after his passing he joined the community of the Hassidim of the rebbe Rabbi Yitzchak Zelig of Sokolow. In that community he was thought of as a true servant of God, as a Hassid who aspired to attain great height in Hassidism, and as a wise man who loved Torah.

In his younger days Rabbi Hirsh worked as a ritual slaughterer and made his living from that sacred occupation. He later decided to leave his post, which was not to his liking. When asked about this step he said, “There is a story told about Rabbi Zelig of Shrantzk [Szrensk], one of the great students of the Seer of Lublin, of the rabbi of Peshischa, and of the rabbi of Kotsk, who once, at the behest of the Seer of Lublin, began to study the laws of slaughtering. He opened the Shulchan Aruch and read the first paragraph, which said that a slaughterer must be fearful of God. He immediately closed the Shulchan Aruch and decided to abandon these studies. He went in to see his rabbi, the Seer, and said, ‘This not a job for me. A slaughterer must be fearful of God, but I am not fearful of God, so how can I be a slaughterer?’”

Once he left his job as a slaughterer, he devoted himself entirely to Torah and good works. He was a dear Jew, a true scholar for whom the Torah was from then on the decisive factor. His diligence only increased. He stopped studying only for his prayers. And his prayers were not just incidental. He was thought by many to be a mindful type of Jew. He devoted long hours every day in preparation for prayer. He would pace back and forth in the house of the Hassidim totally wrapped up in true devotion, like a man ascending to a higher realm. And only after extensive preparation would he commence his actual prayers.

On the Sabbath and holidays Rabbi Hirsh was completely holy. He was like a burning torch full of sacred zeal. And so he lived his entire life in Ostroveh, adding an element of holiness and Hassidism to the city up until his departure from this world, a few years before the Holocaust.

Rabbi Eliezer Tzvi Shafranowitz [Szafranowicz] was an endearing Jew, who possessed a warm and merciful heart. He was one of the beloved citizens of Ostroveh, and one of the outstanding Ger Hassidim in town. He was a native of Ostrolenka who settled in Ostroveh and became a successful merchant. He did not keep his money for himself, but rather dispersed it for various charitable and righteous needs. He was involved in community affairs, and was a fervent Jew, always ready for any sacrifice or effort to strengthen pure Judaism and to help others. He was one of the Hassidim of the rebbe of Ger, the author of the S'fat Emet, as well as of his son, the rebbe Rabbi Avraham Mordechai of Ger, who undertook while in the court of his teachers a responsibility for the entire Jewish people and everything concerning it.

As a successful merchant he devoted some of his time to the repair and improvement of the mikvaot [ritual baths] in Ostroveh, in which he invested much money and hard work. In addition he never refused anything having to do with loving kindness and the commandments. He was always aware of what was occurring around him and ready to help. He did not pursue honors or admiration, position or status, but like a simple soldier on duty was always prepared for action.

During World War I his financial condition declined as a result of the changing governmental authorities. For a short time he left for the United States. Upon his return to his city of Ostroveh he established an institution called Lechem Laaniyim [Bread for the Poor], whose purpose was to distribute free bread to the needy and hungry. In this period there was no lack of wretched poor people in Poland who simply were starving for bread, families who were simply not able to give their children a piece

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of bread to assuage their [pangs of] hunger. He frequently saw their swollen eyes. Reb Eliezer Tzvi Shafranowitz worked on behalf of this institution and invested his energy and time in it. He raised money for it and saw to it that loaves of bread would be distributed daily to the poor with no limits. Every day lines of poor people formed to receive the bread. In Ostroveh the loaves were distributed at the office of Young Agudat Yisrael.

Reb Eliezer Tzvi died in the prime of his life. His son, Reb Simcha Bunim Shafranowitz, continued in the father's footsteps. As the son–in–law of Rabbi Simcha Bunim Landau, he established his home locally and became one of the enthusiastic younger people in Ostrow Mazowiecka. He served as gabbai [officer] of the great house of the Ger Hassidim, which had more than two hundred regular worshippers, and was one of the leaders of Young Agudat Yisrael and one of the organizers of groups of young Hassidim of Ger. Reb Simcha Bunim survived the Holocaust and went to Israel, settling in Jerusalem, where he continued his work of community service on behalf of the Hassidim of Ger and was among the leaders of Agudat Yisrael.

Among the respected residents of Ostroveh was Rabbi Avraham Yitzchak Perkal, an important Ger Hassid and a great scholar who had a logical and deep mind. A professional teacher, he was the son–in–law of Rabbi Mendel Ziegelbaum [Zygielbaum or Zygielboim]^[81], a respected resident of Ostroveh. Rabbi Avraham Yitzchak spent some years as a teacher in Riga, the capital of Latvia, where he worked diligently on behalf of the education of children in Torah and genuine respect for godliness.

He returned to Ostroveh, and with the establishment of the Yesodei Hatorah [Foundations of the Torah] institution of religious education by Agudat Yisrael, he was named head teacher of that institution. He worked hard to strengthen orthodox education in his city.

Rabbi Avraham Yitzchak succeeded in escaping to Soviet Russia at the outbreak of the Holocaust. After the war he was privileged to immigrate to Israel, settling in Jerusalem, where he died in the year 5715 [1954–1955]. His son, Rabbi Moshe Reuven Perkal, continues in his father tradition in Jerusalem. He, too, is a Hassid and scholar who engages in Torah study day and night.

An outstanding figure in Ostroveh Jewry was Reb Michael Teitel [Tejtel], one of the leading men of action in the city and its immediate vicinity. He was the model of a Jewish philanthropist and man of righteousness, who possessed extremely fine personal characteristics.

Reb Michael was very wealthy. He was also a gentle soul with an aristocratic bearing, and an educated man who knew many languages, yet was loyal to the Torah and its commandments. Every day he would go to the new beit midrash. He was an observer of the Torah and its commandments as he understood them. He was a man of erudition and wisdom, well respected and liked.

From his youth he joined the Zionists, and did much on behalf of Zionism in his home town. He served as chairman and patron of that movement, although he did not engage in its battles with other movements, and in fact avoided disputes and conflict altogether. He was an opponent of Hassidim and Hassidism, but at the same time was prepared to help Hassidim and any other Jews who turned to him. He gave charity generously and willingly, with love and courtesy.

During World War I, after the conquest of Ostrow Mazowiezka by the Germans, Rabbi Michael served as deputy mayor of the city, and did much to prevent suffering on the part of its inhabitants. His wife was also generous and did much for the poor of the city and the area. She was always ready

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to offer aid and succor to the suffering, and never turned down performing an act of charity.

Reb Michael eventually established a charity [free loan] fund in the city, of which he served as chairman until his death. He also served as chairman of other institutions and projects in the area. Despite the fact that he was an enthusiastic Zionist, the people of the city did not view him as a party person, but rather as a man of the people who from his high position gave with his heart and with his best efforts for the good of both the community and the individual. He was a lover of Torah who made time to study Torah, but he was also knowledgeable in world literature and world affairs. When the Gaon Rabbi Shmuel Mohilever^[82] established the Group of One Thousand for the purpose of seeing that one thousand families would immigrate to the Land of Israel, Reb Michael joined that organization, and throughout his life he aspired to go to Israel. But his many prosperous business enterprises in Ostroveh prevented him from realizing his dream.

His excellence in matters of charity and righteous deeds conferred upon him an unforgettable status among the Jews of Ostroveh. Local people told many stories about the deeds and generosity of Reb Michael, who had poor tenants living in his properties from whom he did not even ask rent. Reb Michael died in the year 5691 [1930]^[83].

Rabbi Yisrael Yosef Mioduser [Mioduszer] was born in Brok to his father, Rabbi Shmuel Nachman Mioduser, who was the rabbi of the town and one of the important rabbis in the area. He was educated from childhood in pure Torah and Hassidism. He was among the stalwarts of the Hassidim of Ger. At a young age he was married to the daughter of Rabbi Yehuda Orszitzer [Orzycer] of Rozan, one of the veteran Alexander Hassidim. For some years he was supported by his wealthy father–in–law.

During World War I Rabbi Yisrael Yosef and his family moved to Ostroveh. He opened a store which was managed by his wife, while he devoted all his time to studying diligently. Rabbi Yisrael Yosef was beloved to the Ger Hassidim and to the rebbe of Ger, Rabbi Avraham Mordechai. In the awful Holocaust Rabbi Yisrael Yosef and most of his family were killed^[84]. Only two of his daughters survived, as they immigrated to Israel before the war, where they lived with their grandfather, the Gaon Rabbi Shmuel Nachman Mioduser^[85], who served towards the end of his life as chief of the rabbinical court of B'nei Brak. One of the daughters of Rabbi Yisrael Yosef was married to Rabbi Yitzchak Meir, one of the leaders of orthodox Jewry in Israel.

One of the richest Jews in Ostrow Mazowiecka in the years before the outbreak of the Holocaust was Reb Moshe Yosef Suravich [Surawicz]. He was a Hassid of Ger and an educated man, who was very successful in business as the owner of the largest wholesale market in the entire area.

Reb Moshe Yosef was a loyal Hassid, one of the honored men among the Hassidim of Ger who sat at the table of the rebbe of Ger. He gave to charity and served as the recognized address for serious major gifts. He was open to spending great sums for important undertakings. It is said that Reb Moshe Yosef gave significant sums anonymously, without unnecessary publicity.

With the outbreak of the Holocaust Reb Moshe Yosef and his wife fled to Soviet Russia, where he spent the war years. He never had any children. After the war he immigrated to Israel, where after a few years he passed away^[86].

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Rabbi Eliezer Stelung

Polish Jewry was very diverse. Various different types of people inhabited its cities and towns. Each city and town had its own special characters and types. Every community had different and sometimes unusual people, both as to their personality and character, and in the ways they related to people. Among them were rare individuals who were larger than life and who were exceptional. Among them were a handful of extraordinary people, but who nevertheless did not live outside the bounds of the grim day–to– day existence of the masses. There were among them those who had great and pure souls that were hard to find in later generations. One such unique personality was a person who was referred to in Ostroveh as Rabbi “Leizer Yedshiver”, who was in fact Rabbi Eliezer Stelung [Sztelung], may God avenge his blood.

Rabbi Eliezer was orphaned as a young child. He was then raised by his widowed mother, who worked to the very limits of her strength to stave off the shame of hunger from her children. As young Leizer grew up, he wandered from yeshiva to yeshiva, from city to city to learn Torah. In order not to be a burden on his poor widowed mother, he suffered greatly during his many years of wandering, but also excelled in his studies. It was as if he invested all his pain and suffering, the orphanhood that hovered over him from his earliest years, in his studies.

As a young man who excelled in his Torah studies he had reached the stage where marriage proposals began to come his way. A shoemaker from the small village of Yedshiveh [probably Andrzejewo] near near Chizov, which had some fifty Jewish families, managed to “snag” him. In those days in Poland, before World War I, it was the life's dream of every shoemaker or tailor who worked hard for a living by the sweat of his brow to secure a good son–in–law for his family, like a bright young student who would eventually become a rabbi or a teacher in a yeshiva or at least a scholar, a man of standing among his people. From early morning to late evening these Jewish artisans would sit bent over their small benches, engaging in their wearisome work. The never took time off and never saw the light of day all year long. They never left the confines of their home towns. Their place in the house of study [and prayer] was along the western wall, near the entrance, among the poor people. They understood Hebrew with difficulty. They were embarrassed by their ignorance of the fine print. They were jealous of the learned ones and the sharp Hassidim who occupied the eastern wall and who looked down on working people.

“Snagging” a learned son–in–law, a man of stature in society, was seen by them as compensation for their years of hard work, as a badge of honor, as an entry card to a more honorable status. Such a father–in–law would boast about such a son–in–law, would praise him frequently and would hold him up as a role model at every opportunity. A poor shoemaker would make due all his life with very little, only eating a modest main meal late at night, after finishing an exhausting day of work, which at times lasted up to fifteen hours. He would live in a small and wretched home. He hardly ever changed his clothes all his life, keeping one suit for the Sabbath and holidays and one beat up old garment for work. Over the years he would save a penny at a time, ruble by ruble, from his meager income. And from this money that he saved he would provide a dowry to his son–in–law, would provide him with a nice home, and would even provide for his needs for a few years. He invested his entire life's work in his son–in–law who was a student of Torah, a scholar who sat and learned in the study hall, who gave pride to his father–in–law who worked with his hands.

It was a poor shoemaker like this who “snagged” Rabbi Eliezer. He supported him for a number of years and saw to all his needs. For many years Rabbi Eliezer sat and learned day and night in the study hall in Yedshiveh without any worries about making a living. He frequently would travel to his teacher and rabbi, the rebbe of Ger, with whom he was connected by every fiber of his heart and soul. He was prepared to do anything on behalf of his rabbi. Rabbi Eliezer Yedshiver was thought of as one of the most ardent and loyal Hassidim.

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During World War I the small village was burnt to the ground and all its inhabitants scattered. Rabbi Leizer moved to Ostroveh, where he lived up until the horrific Holocaust. Problems and suffering marked all the days of his residence there. Sickness and pain afflicted the members of his family. But these troubles did not shatter his spirit, did not affect his pure Hassidism, his holy work or his studies. On the contrary, with his sweet voice––he was an unusually fine cantor and a gifted musician––was able to uplift himself and others with his melodies.

He was a great scholar as well, and he pursued his studies diligently up until his final day. At three in the morning he was to be found in the study hall, summer and winter, despite the difficult times he was experiencing, always awake and full of enthusiasm as he approached his daily lessons. He was an ardent Ger Hassid and remained so until he died. And he was a loyal and enthusiastic Agudat Yisrael person, as if this were a holy task. Following in this path of his, he was not afraid of anyone nor was he servile to anyone. If he saw something that in his opinion was counter to logic, justice and the public good, he would immediately raise his voice and express his strong opposition, whether it was in the Ger house of Hassidim, which was always full of worshippers and learners, or in meetings held by Agudat Yisrael. At the outbreak of the Holocaust Rabbi Eliezer escaped to Russia, where he died.

A unique and special person was Reb David Rechtman, one of the Hassidim of Ger in Ostrow Mazowiecka. He was a Hassid and a scholar who loved Torah, who was particularly scrupulous and stringent in his observance of the commandments. He was a merchant whose wife managed his store, leaving him free to engage in communal affairs, especially within the framework of Agudat Yisrael. He was a member of the central committee of Agudat Yisrael in Poland and its representative in Ostroveh. He frequently traveled to other cities in Poland to speak and to do work on behalf of Agudat Yisrael. He was an excellent speaker, much in demand, and he performed all this work gratis out of complete loyalty to the ideology and world view of Agudat Yisrael.

Reb David was full of inner energy and initiative. Not a moment in his life was wasted. He was always conscious and full of faith in the future. At the same time he never tolerated any wrongdoing or unjust act that might occur in Agudat Yisrael. He would immediately raise his voice and would not be silenced under any circumstances. He would never be reconciled to any corruption in public affairs, and was prepared to combat it even against those forces larger and more powerful than he. He was not intimidated by the fall–out from such a battle. He was not afraid of anyone nor did he cower before anyone. “When it is a matter of violation of public morals, one is not obliged to bow to the majority,” he contended. Every act that violated the fundamentals of justice and pure morality, the finest sentiments of pure Hassidism, he saw as a public embarrassment. Such manifestations must be fought with all one's heart and with every means at one's disposal. In the horrendous Holocaust, Reb David died for the sanctification of God's name^[87].

Among the outstanding Hassidim who filled the house of Hassidim of Ger in Ostroveh was Rabbi Leib Segal, son of the great and renowned Hassid Rabbi Yisrael Segal of Makow. He married the daughter of Rabbi Yitzchak Gershon Warshauer, one of the important residents of Ostroveh, and from then on lived in the city.

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Like his brother–in–law, Rabbi Yosef Pravda, he ran a store selling iron products in Ostroveh. At the same time he engaged in the study of Torah in all his spare time. He had a refined soul and spirit, replete with a fine character, a noble personality whom many adored and admired. He was a one who inspired respect for his honesty, his deeds and his contacts with other people, whether in his business or in any of his activities. He worked hard to continue the legacy of his father, the Hassid and well rounded man, Rabbi Yisrael.

Reb Leib passed away in Russia. His wife and children survived the war and immigrated to the United States, where they continue their father's great tradition. The son of Reb Leib, Rabbi Yitzchak Gershon, is a scholar and a man of high morals. Reb Leib's son–in–law, by the name of Tzivyak, is one of the top lay leaders of orthodox Jewry in the United States.

There was no lack of outstanding people in Jewish Ostroveh, great scholars and dedicated Hassidim, people who performed good works and who were righteous. It was a city full of beloved Jews who stood out in every realm in which they were involved. Each group had its excellent people, every movement its people of great abilities. There were those who perished in the Holocaust along with the members of their families, who disappeared in that great sacrifice without leaving a trace or memory. Among them were those who did not succeed to have their names written in the pages of a book to be preserved for future generations.

Today Jewish Ostroveh is eerily silent, where it once bustled with activity in every realm. There is not even a trace of the old beit midrash, a place of Torah study and prayer for generations of Jews of the city. The voice of Torah and of prayer has been silenced in this holy site. The worshippers of this prayer house and its many wonderful people whose lives had become an integral part of the beit midrash have gone on to the heavens above.

In the silent streets of Ostroveh the voice of Reb Moshe Grudka, a poor man who devoted his life to the sick and weak, is no longer heard. A dear and beloved Jew and a Ger Hassid, he made his way on foot to the rebbe even in the last years before the Holocaust with just a little bread in his bag. He was an exceptional man who organized a late midnight study session every night. A poor and impoverished man, he was viewed by many as one of the lamed vav^[88] in his generation. He was a Jew who worked hard to perform the commandments devotedly, in an effort to do everything whole heartedly. The sons of Reb Leibel, a wealthy man, partially supported him so that he could fulfill his heart and his soul's aspirations. In the mines of Archangel, Siberia, where tortured captives exerted had labor and sweat, he returned his pure soul to its maker^[89].

Gone from the old study hall forever is Reb Yaakov Velvel the porter, a Jew who labored for his living, but who every evening sat in the old study hall, studying a chapter of the Mishnah with a large group. Reb Yaakov Velvel was a true son of Torah. Also gone were the shamashim [beadles] of the old study hall, the sweet elderly Rabbi Tanchum, a man of acuity and wisdom who, even when he was on his death bed nearing the end, never lost his sharpness, saying to his wife, “Don't cry, don't be afraid. As long as I am alive they won't take me from here.”

Similar to him was Rabbi Natan Zelig, who was an even greater scholar than Rabbi Tanchum. In his youth Rabbi Natan Zelig studied at the famed yeshiva of Slobodka. As he was a giant in his knowledge of Torah as well as in his character, so much so that rabbis did not wish to accept his services, out of respect for the Torah. But Rabbi Natan Zelig was not deterred. Similar to him was Reb Aharkeh the beadle, a scholar and servant of God.

Silent, too, is the wonderful voice of Reb Chaikel the cantor, who had a beautiful tenor voice. The sweetness of his prayers was enjoyed by all the residents of the city, many of whom crowded into the old study hall just to hear his services. He was a smart man, a scholar

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and a sharp person. He, too, regularly taught the Pentateuch with commentaries to the congregation, adding his own innovative thoughts to his teaching.

Dear Jews with exceptional character traits were not lacking at the old beit midrash in Ostroveh. For example, there was Reb Moshe Chaim Wilenski^[90], a wine merchant whose home was always generously open to all comers. He suffered greatly beyond all measure, but this did not in any way diminish his charity and good works. Reb Moshe Chaim was not among the richest men in the city, but this did not prevent him from running a charitable [free loan] fund with his own money. And there was no one who was in need of such aid who was not helped by Reb Moshe Chaim. He was a true Hassid, a scholar, and was beloved by all. He was once asked to sign a guarantee in the sum of seven hundred zlotys. He responded positively, but added, “I will go home and check if my assets total that much.” He went home and returned and signed the guarantee. In the horrendous Holocaust Reb Moshe, his wife and his five children were all killed.

Those who stood out for their acts of charity and righteousness, their devotion and self–sacrifice, were not rare. Reb Isaac Shtepper [Shteffer], an artisan who barely eked out a living, never tired of helping people. His home was like a real assembly hall for guests. Reb Mendel Feinzeig^[91], known in town as Mendel “Elke's”, excelled with his warm and big heart in an incomparable manner. It was told that Reb Mendel once ran into a poor man who did not even have a coat on his body. Reb Mendel took him aside to a quiet corner and made him put on his own coat. Reb Mendel went home without a coat.

There was no lack of such people in the new beit midrash either. Reb Nachum Levartowitz [Lewartowicz], who was thought of as a wealthy man, was a worshipper at the new study hall. Above and beyond his wealth he was known as a charitable man. Poor people stood in line outside his store, where he willingly and lovingly provided them with everything. This Reb Nachum was the son of Rabbi Fishel David, one of

Rabbi Aharon Bengelsdorf, one of the distinguished and honored citizens of Ostroveh, father–in–law of the Gaon Rabbi Moshe Goldblatt and the Gaon Rabbi Moshe Yosef Mandelkorn

There were also Jews who were very knowledgeable in the Torah at the Hassidic house of Amshinov in Ostroveh. There was Rabbi Motel Kashimacher, a beloved Jew who sat and learned day and night, an excellent and renowned scholar who completed the entire Talmud every year, and Rabbi Godel, a distinguished citizen of the town, in whose home the Hassidim of Amshinov were wont to gather on every holiday. Rabbi Itche Itkis was a devoted Amshinov Hassid with whom few could compare.

Among the worshippers at the Amshinov house of Hassidim was Reb Mendel Bilgoray, known in town as Reb Mendel chessler [Polish for carpenter], a contractor who made his living with the labor of his hands, but who was knowledgeable in Jewish learning and was always content with his lot. Once Reb Mendel met another Jew who was smoking a cigarette on the

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the Sabbath. He chased him and hollered at him because he was violating the Sabbath. The Sabbath violator grabbed an iron bar and broke Reb Mendel's skull. Despite the fact that he was bleeding Reb Mendel continued to shout at this apostate. He immigrated to the land of Israel before the last world war and lived a long life. He died in Jerusalem on the eleventh of Adar 5714 [March 16, 1954] at the age of ninety–six. His grandson, Rabbi Leib Bilgoray, is one of the leading Hassidim of Ger in New York^[92].

Hassidim and outstanding people were not lacking in the house of Hassidim of Alexander in Ostroveh either. Take for example Rabbi Yissachar Srebrnik, who served for many years as a teacher, and afterwards as a supervisor in the Talmud Torah in the city. In the evening of his life he maintained the Talmud Torah through his own efforts. In the sweltering days of summer and in the difficult days of winter he beat a path to the doorsteps of the residents, working non–stop on behalf of the Talmud Torah. Despite his advanced age he did not cease his sacred work. He was a scholar and an enthusiastic Hassid, who did what he did for the sake of the divine. He attained an advanced age and died in Ostroveh a few years before the Holocaust.

Another example was Reb Moshe Rosenzweig, one of the important Hassidim of Alexander in town, a scholar and Hassid, as well as a community leader and activist like few in his time. He was a man of dedication and self–sacrifice. He was also among the founders and trustees of the house of Agudat Yisrael and one of the heads of the Chevrah Kadisha [burial society], who worked gratis for a higher purpose. He was a merchant who dedicated much of his time to Torah and Hassidism. Or take Rabbi Meir Leshtsh [Leszcz], son–in–law of Rabbi Chaim Vshebor [Wszebor], one of the distinguished citizens of Ostroveh. He was a devotee and scholar of Torah, but also an ardent and exceptional Hassid. He was one of the intimates of the rebbe who was the author of Yismach Yisrael [Israel Will Rejoice], and his stand–in in Alexander. For a few years he served as the representative of Agudat Yisrael and the Alexander Hassidim on the community council, as one of the officers of the burial society, and one of the leaders of the Maot Chitim project [literally “funds for wheat,” which raised money for matza for the needy on Passover], as a founder of the municipal savings and loan society, and later as one of the heads of the Bank Spoldzielczy. He had a fine appearance and exceptional personal traits. Reb Meir died in Ostroveh at the age of seventy in the year 5695 [1935].

The Hassidic house of Ger served as a center of fine and beloved Jews, exceptional people, scholars and Hassidim, including those who were mentioned in this chapter and those who were not mentioned at all. Among them were very distinguished residents such as Reb Zalman Yosef Nutkewitz [Nutkiewicz], representative of Agudat Yisrael on the town council, a wealthy and charitable man, or Reb Hirsh Yaakov Feinsilber [Fajnzilber], a charitable man of high personal traits, a devoted and outstanding son of the Torah, who gave charity with all his heart and soul, with both hands and with his heart in an manner beyond compare. There was also Rabbi Shalom Dorembus, a scholar and true Hassid, a poor man but one of the few truly exceptional men. There was also Rabbi Tzvi Hirsh Rosen, a well known Hassid, one of the outstanding members of the Sokolow Hassidim, and Rabbi Yitzchak Yaakov Podbilewitz [Podbielewicz], one of the loyal Hassidim of Strikov, who was educated in the yeshivot of Lithuania, a scholar and a man of knowledge, who always set aside time to study Torah. He was a leader in the Mizrachi movement, who represented that movement in the community for many years. Rabbi Meir Yaakov Bergstein was one of the leaders of the Warka Hassidim in Ostroveh and father–in–law of Rabbi Avraham Eliyahu Munz, who pursued Torah and good works in Ostroveh for many years. Every seven years he would complete the study of the Talmud. He also performed many charitable deeds. He arranged a midnight study session and served as an officer of the Talmud Torah for nine years. He was one of the leaders of the burial society and of the Maot Chitim project. Rabbi Meir Yaakov immigrated to the Land of Israel in the year 5685 [1924–1925], and died in Jerusalem on the third of Elul, 5695 [August 31–September 1, 1935]. His sons are Rabbi Avraham Abba and Rabbi Naftali Hertz Livezer. Rabbi Meir Yaakov barely eked out a living while he lived in Jerusalem. Despite that he was always happy to serve God with youthful enthusiasm.

Editor's notes:

1. According to Ostrow Mazowiecka town records, Rabbi Berish was born in 1827. Return
2. Rabbi Yehoshua Yitzchak (1801–1873), a/k/a Eizel Charif (or Little Isaac the Sharp), as described above in the text. Return
3. Rabbi Yosef Schleifer (d. 1905), who was married to Rabbi Isaac's daughter, Nechama. Return
4. The second wife of Rabbi Berish was Sura Shendla Bromberg (1826–1900), daughter of Wolf and Bluma. Return
5. According to town records, Rabbi Berish's second wife died in 1900. Return
6. According to town records, he died on February 14, 1904. According to the Russian calendar then in use in this part of Poland, this would coincide with the tenth of Adar. Return
7. According to town records, Abram Frenkel, son of Leizer Ber and Tema, was born in Tomaszow in 1879 and was recorded as having registered in Ostrow Mazowiecka in 1909. He died in 1915. His wife was Ides, daughter of Tevel and Reila Kielewicz [Kelewitz]. Return
8. According to town records he had two surviving sons: Noach Eliash (b. 1904) and Tevia (b. 1914). His daughter Dvora Leah died the same year as her father. Return
9. Among the many other Ostrowers (she actually had lived in the nearby town of Ostrolenka, where some of the Feinzeig clan resided) who fled to Slonim in 1939 and were killed there in the town's ghetto by the Nazis in 1942 were the editor's great aunt, Dina Feinzeig Weinzimmer, her husband Meir, and their four children, Feige, Zalman, Avraham and Moshe. Return
10. According to town records, he was born in Zambrow on March 1, 1858. Return
11. Mizrachi, an anagram for Merkaz Ruchani or Spiritual Center, was the first separate political party in the World Zionist Organization. Founded in 1902 in Vilna by Rabbi Yitzhak Yaakov Reines, it was the party of Religious Zionism, later called the National Religious Party (or in Hebrew, Miflagah Dadit Leumit or Mafdal). For a history of its founding and development, see Gary S. Schiff, Tradition and Politics: The Religious Parties of Israel, Chap. 2. Return
12. The Jewish National Fund (in Hebrew, Keren Kayemet L'yisrael), founded in 1901, is the land acquisition and development arm of the World Zionist Organization. Return
13. According to town records, the daughter of Rabbi Avraham Yosef, Noima (Naomi), married David Rosenblum in 1906. Note that in the conclusion of this sub–chapter the author uses the name Rosenblum instead of Rosenbaum. Return
14. According to town records, daughter Noima (Naomi) was born in 1884 in Zambrow, daughter Bracha Esther was born in 1889 in Ostrow Mazowiecka, daughter Sheina was born in 1890 also in Ostrow Mazowiecka, and daughter Pessia Beila was born in 1894 also in Ostrow Mazowiecka. There was also a son, Yedidya, who was born in 1877 and who lived with his family in Ostrow Mazowiecka. Return
15. According to town records, Rabbi Zundel (or Abram Zundel) was born in Brok in about 1804 and died in Ostrow Mazowiecka in 1887. Return
16. In the title of this sub–chapter the author lists the first name as Pinchas, but in the subsequent text he uses the name Pesach. Return
17. Rabbi David Biderman (1746–1814) of Lelov. Return
18. Rabbi Levi Yitzchak of Berditchev (1740–1809), one of the early leaders of the Hassidic movement, known for his stories and parables, and as the advocate of the Jewish people before God. Return
19. Rabbi Moshe Leib Erblich of Sasov (1745–1807), another early leader of Hassidism. Return
20. Rabbi Moshe Biderman (1776–1851) of Lelov. Return
21. It appears that the author either omitted a generation or added one (or both). According to other information, Rabbi Yerachmiel Yeshayahu Mintzberg [Mincberg] was the son of Avraham Eliezer Mintzberg and Devorah Chana Biderman, and Devorah Chana was the daughter of Yitzchak David Biderman (1815–1886). Thus, it appears that Rabbi Yerachmiel Yeshayahu's father, Rabbi Avraham Eliezer Mintzberg (1834–1904) of Jozefow, was the son–in–law of Rabbi David of Jozefow (i.e., Yitzchak David Biderman) described in the paragraph above, rather than the son of Rabbi Moshe of Lelov. Other information also suggests that Rabbi David of Jozefow was the son, rather than the grandson, of Rabbi Moshe Biderman of Lelov, who went to Israel. Return
22. According to the entry for Zdunska Wola in Pinkas Hakehilot: Encyclopedia of Jewish Communities (published by Yad Vashem), Rabbi Yerachmiel Yeshayahu Mintzberg served as rabbi there from 1902 to 1905. He was a Hassid and a child prodigy who had been ordained at the age of 16 by Rabbi Yehoshua Trunk of Kutno. Not long after his appointment to the Zdunska Wola rabbinate he fell ill and died on the eve of Rosh Hashanah in Warsaw, where he had gone to seek treatment. He is buried in the Okopowa Street cemetery in Warsaw, where his matzevah [gravestone] gives his Hebrew name as Yerachmiel Yeshaya son of Avraham Eliezer, and his date of death as September 29, 1905 (per the listing of his gravesite on the website of the Foundation for Documentation of Jewish Cemeteries in Poland). There is an extensive inscription on the matzevah describing his good character and accomplishments. Return
23. According to other sources (including the yizkor book for the town of Lachwa, where Rabbi David perished), Rabbi David Mintzberg was born in either 1902 or 1903 in either Lukowa or Zdunska Wola, making him no more than three years old when his father died. Return
24. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka vital records, Icek Dawid Mincberg [Mintzberg] married Szeyna Gitla Lach [Lau?] in 1923. Return
25. In Hebrew, yeshivat Chachmei Lublin, it was established under the leadership of Rabbi Meir Shapira (1887–1933), a leader of the Polish branch of Agudat Yisrael, under whose auspices it operated. It harked back to the great yeshivot that had once existed there. The foundation stone for the impressive spacious five–story building, surrounded by a large gated and landscaped campus, was laid in 1924. With contributions from Polish and world Jewry, it was opened in 1930, and remained functioning until 1939. The building housed classrooms, offices, and living facilities for over 200 students, as well as a major Judaica library of over 22,000 volumes and a large synagogue/auditorium. Under Nazi rule it became regional headquarters for the military police, and after the war it housed the medical school of the University of Lublin. The facility was returned to the ownership of the Jewish community in 2003, and the synagogue and other facilities have been renovated for use by the Jewish community. The name of the institution and its founder are now emblazoned in large letters on its exterior in both Hebrew and Polish. Among Rabbi Shapira's other major innovations on behalf of Agudat Yisrael was the institution of the daf yomi [“daily page”] Talmud study program, under which all participants world–wide study the same page simultaneously, so that the entire cycle is completed in seven years. In 2005 participants returned to Lublin to celebrate the completion of the eleventh cycle of the study program at the very yeshiva where it began. See Gary S. Schiff, In Search of Polin: Chasing Jewish Ghosts in Today's Poland, pp. 81–82, and photograph on p. 87. Return
26. Rabbi Aryeh Tzvi Frumer (1884–1943), who perished at Majdanek. Return
27. Rabbi Moshe (“Moshenyu”) Friedman (1881–1943), who perished at Auschwitz. Return
28. Rabbi Menachem Ziemba (1883–1943), who perished in the Warsaw Ghetto uprising, of which he was a leader. Return
29. Ostrow Mazowiecka vital records and other sources show that Rabbi David had nine children, seven daughters and two sons. They were: Rachmil Shaya (Yerachmiel Yeshayahu in Hebrew), Mariam, Sara Devoyra, Fayga Rochel, Chana Brayna, Leya, Chava, Perla and Moshe Meir. Return
30. Rabbi David's wife and daughters survived the war. According to the 2013 obituary of his daughter, Chana Friedman, Rebbetzin Shaina Gittel Mintzberg immigrated to Crown Heights, in Brooklyn, with her daughters. Passenger records show that she arrived in New York in 1952 with her four younger daughters (Leya, Chana, Chaya and Perla), and that a fifth daughter also came to New York later that year (Sara, who had married her cousin, Rachmiel Shaya Kempinski). Return
31. According to an article on the website of the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, approximately 1,500 hundred Jews were killed in the Lachva ghetto uprising, and of the 600 who managed to escape to the forests, another 420 soon perished. At the end of the war only 90 of those who escaped from the Lachva ghetto remained alive. Return
32. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Abram Jankel Fridman [Friedman] married Bluma Judes Goldberg in 1895. Return
33. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, he died in April 1895 at the age of 62. Avraham Yitzchak Bromberg (1832–1895) and his wife Feige Zissel Bromberg nee Wainberg (1835–1923) had the following children:
    – Leyb Don [Dan Aryeh] Bromberg (1856–1920), buried in Warsaw, married Mala Mariem, daughter of Yaakov Mendelson;
    – Esther Perl (1857–1917), wife of Nachman Goldberg;
    – Chaim Mordechai Bromberg (1861–1921), buried in Warsaw, married Esther Leah, daughter of Yaakov Alexander Ziskind Bialer;
    – Tsveytl Gittel (b. 1862), wife of Shlomo Hershel Reichman;
    – Wolf Bromberg (b. 1863);
    – Yankel/Jakob Bromberg (1865–1935), married the daughter of Yehuda Meir Lipski;
    – Hershel Bromberg (b. 1866), married Yudes, daughter of Shaya Shreyter; and
    – Nosek Bromberg (1869–1941), married Royza, daughter of Chaim Shydlovski.Return
34. In European Jewish history, a shtadlan was an influential Jew who, because of his wealth or connections at court (in German hof, hence the Germanic term Hofjude) or otherwise, was in a position to influence the government on behalf of the Jewish community and its interests. In Poland, the position developed into a more formalized one during the period of the autonomous Council of the Four Lands (1580–1764), when the shtadlan became a professional, paid lobbyist, with all the accoutrements of the modern lobbyist: a salary, budgets for “walking around money” and actual bribes, for staff, etc. There were often similar paid communal officials on the provincial level as well. Return
35. Rabbi Avraham Landau (ca. 1789–1875) was known as the “Tzadik of Ciechanow” or the “Ciechanower Rebbe”. His wife Itta was the daughter of Reb Dan Landau. Return
36. According to information on Warsaw cemetery burials, Rabbi Yosef Kalisz [Kalish] died on January 27, 1936 (other sources indicate an unspecified date in 1935). His father, Rabbi Menachem Kalisz, died on January 12, 1917 (other sources indicate an unspecified date in 1918). Return
37. According to information on Warsaw cemetery burials, Rabbi Yaakov David Kalisz died in March 23, 1942. Return
38. Probably Szmul Grudke [Grudka] (1836–1891), son of Litman and husband of Sura Leah. Return
39. Meaning the seventh century of the fifth millennium on the Jewish calendar, or the 5600's, the equivalent of 1839–1939 on the general calendar. Return
40. According to Warsaw cemetery information, Nachman son of Yehuda Goldberg died on May 7, 1926. According to a parallel article in the other, larger Yizkor Book of the Jewish Commmunity of Ostrow Mazowiecka, edited by A. Gordin and M. Gelbart, written by many contributors. partially in Yiddish and partially in Hebrew and published originally in Israel in 1960, and later translated by multiple people and published in English translation by JewishGen in 2013, his wife Esther Perl died on the 9^th of Iyar 5677 [April 30–May 1, 1917]. Return
41. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Aron Jasinski [Yashinsky] (b. 1869) married Ruchla Leja Szwarc [Schwartz] (b. 1875) in 1892. Return
42. The later, larger section of the Talmud, compiled between 350–500 of the Common Era. Return
43. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Rabbi Avraham was born in Sokoly. Return
44. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Avraham Pecyner [Petziner] was born in Sokoly on December 24, 1887; his father, Mendel Pecyner, was born in Ostrow Mazowiecka in 1866; and his grandfather, Zelman Zelek Pecyner, was born in Ostrow Mazowiecka in January 1846. Return
45. Rabbi Avraham Bornsztain [Borenstein] (1838–1910). Return
46. According to the records of Ostrow Mazowiecka and the Yad Vashem Pages of Testimony, Rabbi Avraham's wife was Mariam, daughter of David Migdal of Zaremby Koscielne, who died in 1922. Their children who perished with their father in Slonim in 1942 were: Leyb (b. 1912) and his wife Hudes (b. 1915); Zalman Zelig (b. 1913); David (b. 1916); and Chana Malka (b. 1921). Other children who are not on the list of Slonim victims were Freyda Leya (b. 1911); and Basha. Return
47. A special penitential period in the winter when each of the first eight chapters of the Book of Exodus is read weekly to avert illnesses. Return
48. Rabbi Gershon's death is not recorded in the records of Ostrow Mazowiecka. The records indicate that he was born in Grajewo in 1828. His son, Srul Dawid Podgorowicz, is listed as having been born in Ostrow Mazowiecka in December 1885. Return
49. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Rabbi Chaim Josek Ozarov was born in Pultusk in 1877, and was registered as having moved to Ostrow Mazowiecka in 1922. Return
50. A program of the simultaneous daily study of a particular page of the Talmud by orthodox Jews around the world, with the cycle being completed every seven and a half years. It was initiated by the Agudat Yisrael movement at its world convention in Vienna in 1923, under the aegis of Rabbi Meir Shapiro, who later became the dean of the yeshivat Chachmei Lublin in Lublin. The program continues to this day. See also footnote on p. 102 above. Return
51. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Abram Mendel Galant married Slawa, daughter of Szaja Kaczor, in 1902 Return
52. The name Romm is actually an acronym for rosh metivta, or senior lecturer in a yeshiva, an especially common appellation among Jews in Lithuania, the epicenter of yeshivot. There was also a famous family of printers/publishers of religious books by that name in Vilna. Return
53. Acronym for Gaon Rabbi Eliyahu, Rabbi Eliyahu ben Shlomo Zalman (1720–1797), a/k/a the Vilna Gaon, a leading rabbinical figure and scholar of the period and vigorous opponent of Hassidism, hence the spiritual founding father of the Mitnagdim [opponents], the prevailing stream of orthodox Judaism in Lithuania. Return
54. While generally referred to in this volume as Rabbi Naftali Tzvi, his gravestone in Beth Israel Cemetery in Woodbridge, New Jersey, gives his name as Rebbe Rabbi Naftali Aryeh son of Moshe Shpiegel, the Ostrower and Kalushiner rabbi. The Ostrow Mazowiecka records give his name as Naftula–Lejb Szpigel son of Moszek, a Rabbi, born in Wengrow in 1869; his U.S. naturalization papers give his name as Naftal Leib Spigel and his birthplace as Wienawa, presumably Wieniawa, near Lublin. They list his wife as Sura, daughter of Jacob Lejb Unger, born in Lublin in 1872. He and his wife are recorded as having arrived in the United States through Buffalo on July 22, 1926 under the names Naftal and Sura Spigel, traveling to the Ershte Wengrower Congregation in New York City. Return
55. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Juszek Wolf Rekant was born in Zambrow in 1868; his death is not recorded. Rywka was his second wife; their marriage was recorded in 1908. Return
56. On November 11, 1939, some 500 (some sources indicate 560) remaining Jews in Ostrow Mazowiecka––those who were not among the approximately 7,000 who had previously crossed the footbridge over the main railroad line between Warsaw and Bialystok to the Soviet zone of occupation at the instigation of the Nazis, who relieved them of all their valuables, or who had otherwise escaped––were marched out of the town to a small forest, where they were made to dig large pits and were then shot. Among them were some relatives of the editor. A series of photographs, taken by a German military photographer of the event, which are on file at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, appear in the Addendum to this translation. A monument in Hebrew and Polish now stands at that spot, a photograph of which also appears in the Addendum. Return
57. The family is recorded in the Ostrow Mazowiecka records as Milert, Milner or possibly Mlynarzewicz. Majer Milert's death is recorded in 1884. There is a Mordko–Lejb Goldwasser in the records who was born in Lomza in 1851 and died in Ostrow Mazowiecka in 1924, but his relationship with the Milner family is unclear. Return
58. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Icek Mejer Pragier was born in January 1872. Return
59. Rebbe Tzvi Hersh Morgenstern of Lomazy (1852–1926), brother–in–law of Rabbi Aharon Menachem Mendel Gutterman of Radzymin (see next footnote). Return
60. Rabbi Aharon Menachem Mendel Gutterman of Radzymin (d. 1934). Return
61. Possibly Rabbi David Shlomo Morgenshtern of Wyszkow, or Rabbi David Shlomo's father, Rabbi Yaakov Aryeh Morgenshtern, who moved to Radzymin in 1934 to take the place of his uncle, Rabbi Aharon Menachem Mendel Gutterman. Return
62. One of the religious changes brought about by Hassidism was a reversion to the Sephardic form of liturgy (though not its pronunciation or music), considered by them to be more authentic, whereas Mitnagdim retained the Ashkenazi format brought earlier from Germany. Return
63. Established in 1922, this was a branch of a network of yeshivot that originated in Novhardok [Navahurdak, now in Belarus], which had been shut done by the new communist government. See Gary S. Schiff, In Search of Polin: Chasing Jewish Ghosts in Today's Poland, p. 97. See also Chapter 11 below. Return
64. Maryan–Zyndram Koscialkowski (1892–1946), who also served in the Polish government as Interior Minister (1934–1935) and as Prime Minister (1935–1936). He served in the Sejm (Polish parliament) from 1922–1939. Return
65. A network of orthodox Jewish day schools, the first for girls, the first of which was established by Sarah Schenirer in Cracow in 1917, and later taken over and expanded worldwide by the Agudat Yisrael movement. Return
66. This made Rabbi Morgenstern a brother–in–law to Rabbi Yosef Bendit Kelewitz. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Rabbi Morgenstern's wife Kejla, born in 1852, was the daughter of Lewin and Ruchla Kelewicz [Kelewitz]. Return
67. A popular compilation of all the Aggadic (i.e., non–legal, but rather ethical and homiletical) material in the Babylonian Talmud by Rabbi Yaakov ben Shlomo ibn Habib (c. 1420–1516). He was born in Zamora, Spain, but after the expulsion of the Jews from that country in 1492, immigrated to Salonika. Return
68. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Josel Prawda [Pravda] married Rachela Warszawer [Warshauer]. She was born in 1899, the daughter of Icek Gerszon Warszawer. Return
69. Acronym for Moreinu Harav Loew [Our Teacher Rabbi Leib], Rabbi Yehuda Leib [Loew] ben Betzalel, preeminent rabbinical scholar, philosopher and mystic (c. 1520–1609). He was born in Poznan, Poland, but lived mostly in Prague, and was closely associated with the legend of the Golem. Return
70. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Mendel Lichtensztejn [Lichtenstein] was born in Ostrow Mazowiecka in 1866 and died there in 1928. His wife Basia, daughter of Aron Zeifman, was born in Bransk in Grodno gubernia around 1866. Return
71. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Mendel Siemiatycki [Semiatitzsky] married Estera Gitla Frejman [Freyman] in 1902. However, Rabbi Mendel's passenger list record gives his wife's name as Fejga. Estera Gitla may have died in Ostrow Mazowiecka in 1904, so that Fejga would have been Rabbi Mendel's second wife. She may have also been a younger daughter of Reb Binyamin Frejman, hence a younger sister of Estera Gitla. Return
72. A passenger list record shows the arrival of Mendel Siemiatycki, age 46, rabbi, in New York City on January 28, 1926. It showed him going to stay with Mendel Kronenberg of 214 Henry Street. According to the record, Rabbi Mendel was born in Drohiczyn. Return
73. King of Assyria, 705–681 B.C.E, who put down a Jewish rebellion and laid siege to Jerusalem, thought did not destroy it Return
74. According to Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Mendel died in 1937. Return
75. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Lejba Wigdor Cukrowicz [Zukrowitz] was born in the town of Ciechanowiec in 1847, and died in Ostrow Mazowiecka on March 4, 1923. His wife was Sura Ryfka Markowska. Return
76. There was a Szaja Augustower in the Ostrow Mazowiecka records who was born in 1854 and died in 1913, but he was originally from Ostrow Mazowiecka, so it is not clear if he is the same one. Return
77. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Eliasz Fajba Petruszka [Petrushka] was born in Zambrow in 1842. Return
78. A database of Warsaw Jewish cemetery burials shows an entry for Eliahu Shraga Feivel Petruszka [Petrushka], son of Avraham David, with a death date of the 17th of Tevet 5685 (or 5688), corresponding to 1925 or 1928, rather than 1914 or 1915. Return
79. The Ostrow Mazowiecka records show the marriage of Chana Landa to Symcha Binym Szafranowicz [Shafranowitz] in 1937. Return
80. Rabbi Chaim Yisrael Morgenstern of Pilov [Pulawy] (1804–1905), a descendant of Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Kotsk. Return
81. The Ostrow Mazowiecka records show the marriage of Abram Icek Perkal to Ela Bejla Zygielbaum [Ziegelbaum] in 1897. The records also show a daughter of Mendel Zygielbaum named Enja Bejla, born in 1879, presumably the same Ela Bejla from the marriage record. Return
82. Rabbi Shmuel Mohilever (1824–1898), rabbi in Bialystok, one of the pioneers of the religious Zionist movement and of the broader Hovevei Tziyon (Lovers of Zion) movement, a precursor to the World Zionist Organization. Return
83. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Michel Tejtel [Teitel] died in 1930. He was born in 1862. Return
84. According to the aforementioned other Ostrow Mazowiecka Yizkor book (published in Israel in 1960) and Yad Vashem Pages of Testimony, Israel Josef Mioduser [Mioduszer] (b. 1895), his wife Sheva (nee Wygodzki), and their children Mendel (b. 1921), Chaim (b. 1924?), Sura Rivka (b. 1924) and Dvoyra perished in the Holocaust in 1943 in Bialystok. The Pages of Testimony were submitted by Israel Josef's daughter, Chana Ram of Petach Tikvah, and sister, Yocheved Birati. The other surviving daughter may have been Gittel. Return
85. According to various sources, Rabbi Nachman Shmuel Yaakov Mioduser (spellings vary) was born in Warsaw in 1872 and died in B'nei Brak in 1948. He was rabbi and head of the yeshiva in Brok and published a book of commentaries, Amudei Yonatan [The Pillars of Jonathan], named after his ancestor, Rabbi Yonatan Eybeshutz, in 1910. Passenger list records show him visiting New York City in 1923 (when he was still living in Brok), and in 1927 (by which time he was living in Palestine). He was the second head of the rabbinical court in B'nei Brak. Return
86. Ed. – According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Moszek Josel Surawicz [Surawitz], son of Lejb and Szejna Gitla (nee Orlinski), was born in Czyzewo in 1874. In 1894 he married Chawa Markus in Ostrow Mazowiecka. Return
87. According to the Ostrow Mazowiecka records, Dawid Rechtman, son of Aron and Chawa Dwojra (nee Margulis), was born about 1882 and was married to Ruchla Leja (nee Seres). They had a son, Mnochim. Return
88. Lamed vav, the Hebrew letters corresponding to the number thirty–six which, according to an ancient Jewish legend, corresponds with the minimum number of unknown truly righteous people in every generation who exist in the world at any given time. Return
89. Possibly the same as Mosze Grodke [Grudka], for whom a Page of Testimony was submitted to Yad Vashem by his daughter Sheyna, indicating that he was born in Ostrow Mazowiecka in 1892 to Avraham and Chaya, was married to Chana Vishka Levkovich (likely Olowkowicz), and died in Russia, as did his wife. Return
90. A Page of Testimony at Yad Vashem for Moshe Vilenski [Wilenski] of Ostrow Mazowiecka, submitted by a relative, indicates that he was born in Stok in 1880, owned a liquor store, and perished in 1943–1944. There are also Pages of Testimony for his daughters Sima (b. 1907) and Frida (b. 1910) and his son Yakov (b. 1913). According to the records of Ostrow Mazowiecka, his wife's name was Bejla (nee Kac or Katz). Their marriage was recorded in 1896. Return
91. A relative of this editor. As the name Mendel (like the name Yaakov) was so common in the large extended Feinzeig family, sometimes holders of that name were given “nicknames”, in this case that of his mother–in–law, Elke, to distinguish them from others of the same name. The story of Reb Mendel and his coat is still frequently told in the family. This editor heard it again from his cousin, H.E. Dr. Jaime Feinzaig [the Spanish spelling of the name], Ambassador of Costa Rica to Italy, when visiting him in the embassy in Rome in 2013. With the severe restrictions on immigration from Eastern Europe (largely Jews) imposed by the Johnson–Reed Act of 1924 (with exceptions made for immediate family of those already here, as in the case of this editor's direct ancestors), many other Feinzeigs who sought to leave Poland afterwards wound up in various Central and South American countries, including Costa Rica, Mexico, Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. Others, especially the more Zionistically–inclined among them, went to Mandatory Palestine/Israel. Many of their descendants continue to live in those countries today. Return
92. Abram Mendel Bilgoraj was born in the town of Jablonka in 1861. He immigrated to Israel in 1936. His grandson Isaac Leib Bilgoraj (1921–1988) spent the war years in Shanghai and immigrated to the United States in 1947, taking up residence in Brooklyn. Return

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