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[Page 395]
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[Page 396]
[Page 397]
The Zionist stream took up a very distinguished position and developed an active role among the individual social groupings in the Ghetto.
As we know, after the Soviets marched into Lithuania in June 1940, all the Zionist organizations were liquidated, and the majority of the Zionist party leaders were deported to the Asiatic areas of Russia. The deportations took place just before the outbreak of war between Germany and the Soviet Union. However, the Zionist activities carried on under illegal conditions during the Soviet times. In the confined space of the Ghetto, it had “unrestrained” possibilities for development.
In the Ghetto, in November 1941, they started forming the first and most significant Zionist youth organization, “A.B. Z.” (Organization of Alliance of Zion). Ideologically it stood between the general Zionists and Z.S. Leaders of the “A.B.Z.” were: Itzhak Shapira, Arieh Cohen, Abraham Melamed, Shlomo Frenkel, Rozenberg, and others.
At the same time, tests were made to renew the Hebrew newsletter “Nitzotz” [spark] which started to appear illegally in Kovno, even during the Soviet period. Aside from this pair of volumes of “Nitzotz” a few volumes from the newsletter “Shalhevet” [flame] also appeared in the Ghetto with an edition dedicated to resistance issues. These editions did not get out to a large readership.
In April 1942, “Matzok” (Zionist Center Viliampole, Kovno) was founded. Involved in this center, aside from the Chairman and Deputy-Chairman of the Elders Council, Dr. Elkes and Adv. Garfunkel, were also Chairmen of the General Zionists – A' (Dr. Ch. G. Shapira), General Zionists B' (A. Golub), Revisionists (Hirsh Levin), and Z.S. (Srebnitzki). The Chairmen of “Matzok” was Dr. Shapira.
[Page 398]
Already at the establishment of “Matzok,” the Zionist businessmen who had positions of responsibility in the ghetto hierarchy, tended to protect their former party members. This was evidenced in various ways, for example, by receiving “Jordan certificates,” better work positions, etc.
As was already mentioned, “Matzok” maintained an influence also on the activity of the Elders Council and its institutions. So, for example, all the most important decisions of the Elders Council in carrying out the orders of the regime, and by deciding and dismissing the officials of the ghetto hierarchy, went through the filter of “Matzok.”
In May 1942, “Eshel” (Organization for the Protection of Saplings) was established. The purpose of “Eshel” was a double one: guarding the Ghetto Gardens and organizing the Zionist youth. At the head of this youth organization were Dr. Shapira (from the Zionist side) and Dr. Yefim Rabinovitch (from the Economic Office). From those among the leaders of the youth leadership, we must mention: Itzhak Shapira (“A.B. Z.”) and Leib Ipp (Revisionists). “A.B. Z.” had the influence. “Eshel” had 300-400 youth from ages 14-18.
Aside from “A.B.Z.” which was the most distinguished Zionist youth group, there were also other active Zionist youth streams, like “Hashomer Hatzair” (leading members: Rauzuk, Vaskoboynik); “Beitar” (Ipp, Neishtot, Barishnik); “Hachalutz-Hazair;” “Dror” (Kaptshevski, and others).
The number of members in the youth organizations was comparatively small. So, for example in Summer, 1943 the largest youth organization “A.B.Z.” had about 150 active members and a few hundred in its periphery. “Beitar” mainly had active members. Its periphery was small.
“A.B.Z.” emphasized cultural educational activities for its members. For this purpose, they organized seminars for youth (led by Rozenberg) and for adults (Dr. Shapira). “Beitar,” by comparison, was engaged in social help for its members, taking up important positions in the ghetto hierarchy, especially in the Police. “The Young Guard, Hashomer Hazair” and “The Young Pioneer, Hechalutz Hazair” founded the only Kibbutz in the Ghetto.
[Page 399]
The older Zionists gathered around the following Zionist streams: a) Z.S. (Meshkotz, Srebnitzki, Engineer Sadovski, B. Cohen, S. Goldshtein, A. Cohen); b) Revisionists (H. Levin, m. Levin, Bukanz, Gotstein); c) Jewish statesmen (Chaitin, Sherkovitch, Engineer Goldberg); d) “Mizrachi” (Melamed, Shuv); General Zionists A' (Dr. Shapira, Ch. Kagan, Dr. Levitan, Alexandrovitch); General Zionist B' (Golob, Dr. Katz, B. Takatsh, Klotz). The last four Zionist streams educated toward a type of unified front, i.e., “Coordination.”
The leading persons of the “Coordination” were Ch. Kagan, and A. Golob. In the Summer of 1943, under the influence of the General Zionist A' and “Hapoel HaMizrachi,” they established the organization “B.Z.” (Zionist Union). The chairman of the “B.Z.” was Dr. Shapira. After his death this office was taken up by Ch. Kagan.
“B.Z.” postured to become the “United Zionist Organization” also after liberation. At this opportunity it is interesting to mention that even then, in the programs of these organizations, they predicted proclamations about a Jewish state in Eretz Israel (understandably, not knowing at all about similar decisions taken at the Biltmore Conference).
Also, “A.B.Z.” was ideologically close to “B.Z.”, and “A.B.Z.” was much more progressive. Its program was not strongly Socialist, but it had a distinct social color. A. Cohen published a brochure about the ideological essence of the “A.B.Z”. Thereafter, in February 1943, a platform was worked out from the “A.B.Z.” that on the 10th and 11th of April 1943, a special Board meeting would be convened which confirmed this platform.
In July 1943 the “A.B.Z.” and “The Young Guard” created the “Organizational Association of Zionist Youth.” “Beitar” did not join this “union.”
After the closing of the children's schools, they succeeded in creating Zionist youth circles near the Vocational School. Besides teaching various crafts, unofficially they were also learning general studies. From time to time, the youth groupings also organized cultural events and a large audience would attend.
At the end of 1942, many members of the former student organization became active, especially those from the civic groups.
[Page 400]
Aside from the cultural-social activity, the youth groups interested themselves in getting better workplaces for their members in the city brigades, in the ghetto workshops, and in the ghetto administration. During the time of recruitment for labor camps they would try to protect the interests of their own members.
Whatever was related to the conspiracy of the Zionist activity, we must say, that at first, they were very careful. Starting in the Summer of 1942, when the situation in the Ghetto became somewhat stabilized, the conspiracy returned to its earlier strong character.
In the Ghetto, whenever life was shaken-up, like for example, due to an Action or another decree, then social activities were temporarily paralyzed.
Also, as we know, in the movement to leave for the woods to join the partisans, the Zionist youth groups played an important role.
Zionist work was conducted not only in the ghetto settlement but also in the labor camps. For objective reasons, the work there was carried out on a much more restricted scale than in the Ghetto itself.
After the Children's Action, the “Matzok” itself became dissolved, but the youth groups did not halt their work. After the liquidation of the Elders Council, Dr. Elkes became nominated as “All Knowing.” Once again, contact was re-established between him and the Zionist groups. These connections were held until the deportations from the Ghetto.
The Jewish Police was liquidated and those leading the writings about ghetto events were killed at the 9th Fort. Thus, A. Cohen, on assignment from the Zionist groups, took over this work and did it during the last months of the Ghetto's existence.
Almost all leaders in the Zionist youth groups hid in the social-group hideouts during the deportation. But the largest portion died in the flames of the bombed and burned houses during the liquidation of the Ghetto.[a]
Original footnote:
During the 3-year existence of the Kovno Ghetto creations of folklore arose, like folksongs, witticisms, and jokes, just like in every other ghetto settlement. These creations mirrored the various aspects of the relationship between the tragic ghetto reality and the Jewish people.
Occupying a place of honor in this folklore were the Ghetto songs which were created by poets with the intention of “memorializing” the most important phenomena in ghetto life. Many of these songs quickly became the property of the entire ghetto collective.
With simple, but heartfelt and touching words, the ghetto poet complained about the murderous measures of the occupation regime, about the helpless Jewish population, mass slaughters, relocations, forced labor, physical and moral humiliations, etc.
Very popular ghetto creations were those which criticized or “parodied” public ghetto life in a satirical or humoristic manner. For example, they referred to corruption, protectionism and other wail-provoking evils and inequities of the Jewish ghetto administration toward most ghetto Jews, the unique social differentiation in ghetto life, and the like. Because of that, we can often glean much more from a folk song or witticism than from lengthy writings in understanding the pain and “happiness” of the ghetto person.
The purpose of this information is not to give any viable evaluation about the folklore of the Kovno Ghetto. Rather, it is only to submit a few characteristic samples of its folkloric creation and show how well it complements the material which is being included in this book.
[Pages 402-403]
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Author unknown. Created in 1942; it was one of the numerous original Holocaust songs, where the bloody fate of the ghetto Jew under the Nazi death-regime was lamented. The anonymous author ends his Lamentations-Song with words of comfort which call for perseverance and hope for better times.
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a) A year has already passed In days of pain and in days of fear Soon another comes And tells us that nothing better is coming With coiled barbed wire The patches are tightly sewn on us So, they recognize you immediately You are a Jew! You are a Jew!
b)
c)
d)
e) |
[Page 404]
Lyrics – Abraham Axelrod. Melody by Pilsodski-Marsh: “We the First Brigade.” Created at the end of 1941. This folklore creation described the humble Jewish “life” in the Ghetto and declared that the murderous Hitlerites must soon disappear.
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A new time for us has come A time of lament, need and pain Away from us the sun and flowers Remaining only a work-certificate
Jewish brigades dressed up in patches
You have created ghettos for us
Jewish brigades dressed up in patches
We work for you and build
Jewish brigades dressed up in patches
We don't ask you for mercy
Jewish brigades dressed up in patches
We don't complain and cry to you
Jewish brigades dressed up in patches
We will survive it, brothers
Jewish brigades, dressed up in patches |
[Page 405]
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Lyrics – Abraham Tzipkin. Created in 1942. The Aerodrome worker, the “slave” of the Kovno Ghetto settlement, was described many times in his book “The Aerodrome Worker,” which illustrated the inhumane conditions of this slave labor, through which thousands of Jews worked day and night.
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Friends, I want to sing a song for you A song which cries out from my heart Telling you everything, like I see it, Telling, telling the entire thing…
The early morning is gray, it is dark and wet
Soft little hands knead the lime
And food? – what food, when do they give food?
Life has already become ugly, |
[Page 406]
Lyrics– A. Axelrod. Melody “Oifn Pripitzhok Brent a Fayerl” [A little fire is burning on the hearth]
This little song depicts the checkpoint at the Ghetto Gate, while Jews were returning from work in the city.
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At the little ghetto gate A fire is burning And the terror is great Jews are coming From the brigades And they are dripping with sweat
Should I continue going further?
A chunk of wood
Hey, pal with the armband[a]
Stand confidently |
[Page 407]
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Lyrics – Natan Markovski. Created in 1942. A list of privileges flowed for the colleagues from the Jewish administration. This caused social antagonism between the “Committee guys” and most of the ghetto-Jews. The reader can get a picture of this situation from this song.
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Something strange about how you speak Why am I in the Committee? If I weren't in the Committee- I would not be here or there…
Here, for example, there is a queue
Potatoes are given, alas and alack
Or wood is distributed by the river
To the airport we must go
One would be lucky to be in the brigade
Six persons in a kitchen
Now you will finally understand
Indeed, I am telling you the truth |
[Page 408]
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Lyrics– A. Axelrod. Created in 1942. This folk song is also a social critique about the same privileged elements in the Ghetto – the Big Shots [Yales]
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Tell me, tell me you little ghetto Jew, Who plays the first violin in the Ghetto? Who among the big shots, some more, some less Wants to reign here just like a king.
Cymbal, cymbal, play little ghetto-Jew
From all the “chiefs” and “inspectors”
Cymbal, cymbal, play little ghetto-Jew
Why do the big shots eat white baked goods
Cymbal, cymbal, play little ghetto-Jew
Have the big shots ever worked at the Aerodrome
Cymbal, cymbal, play little ghetto-Jew
Who needs the concerts when the sadness is great
Cymbal, cymbal, play little ghetto-Jew |
[Pages 409-410]
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Lyrics and music – Shaul Shenker. A fragment from a song about “equity” among the Jewish officials and how they distributed passes to a working woman, the so-called ghetto-madam…
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Little Deborah goes in to see the doctor Her nose is covered with a lovely little handkerchief My dear Sir Doctor, give me a day's pass That guy with the little white hat[d] - he should go to hell I rested a little while on the grass, So, he came running and broke my nose…”
“Not your luck to be free,
To the same little table, a madam comes by
“You are lucky, you are free, |
[Page 411]
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Lyrics- N. Markowski. Created in 1942. V. Lurie described the brutal attitude towards the ghetto-people by the people from the Aerodrome-division of the Jewish Labor Office. In his folk song (this is only a fragment from the song) the writer depicts the “dictatorial” manner of this angry Jewish ghetto ruler.
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In the Ghetto there was A really big man Who became a tyrant here. Every early morning He chased people, like livestock Thinking that he will live forever. Always wild, screaming and cursing At the people with a wild animal roar.
Tall man, big man, give a smile.
I don't understand what he thinks
Tall man, big man, give a smile. |
[Pages 412-413]
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Lyrics by Reuven Tzarfat. In pre-war Jewish Lithuania this author was a familiar writer, who received notoriety with his fourteen successful pamphlets. “Jewish Tango” which was much more than an ordinary folklore-creation and was really popular far beyond the borders of the Jewish Kovno settlement. The writer was killed in the Dachau labor camps.
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Play a tango for me in Yiddish It could be Misnagdish or Chasidish So that grandmother herself Should be able to understand it And, indeed, dance to it a while!
Chorus:
Play me a tango about refugees
Chorus
Play for me a tango, not at all Aryan
Chorus
Play for me a tango about peace
Chorus |
[Page 414]
YALEH: the following is the “story” about this ghetto word: In Autumn, 1941, thousands of Jews were engaged in forced labor at the Kovno Aerodrome. The relations of the masters and guards to the Jewish workers was quite harsh. When a guard or a master stepped away from the workplace for a while, the Jews could catch their breath and not work. However, they would have to watch carefully in case a supervisor returned unexpectedly. They would get deathly beatings for such “violations.” One day, during a moment of rest among the workers, the Carmelite Rabbi Broido,[f] saw a German guard approaching. He started shouting: “Yaleh v'yavo.” [from a Hebrew blessing]. With that he meant to warn the Jews that a German is coming. From then on, the word “Yaleh” became a code word at the workplace, signifying that a supervisor is approaching. Later the word “Yaleh” became a synonym not only for a non-Jewish tyrant, but also for a Jewish ghetto “official.” The word “Yales” referred to the higher functionaries of the Jewish ghetto administration.
VITAMIN “P”: the plague of protectionism, among others which ensnared all areas of public ghetto life, was touched upon in the description of the activities of the Jewish ghetto institutions. Efforts by the simple Jews to get something from a ghetto institution was almost always unsuccessful if they didn't have any acquaintances or introduction to someone from the leading Jewish ghetto officials. In ghetto life, the ruling “principle” was, take care of me and I will take care of you. That meant, you do me a favor and I will serve you with something. This protectionism reigned especially in the Jewish Labor Office, which would distribute the better workplaces mainly to persons who were protected by a “Yaleh.” In such a case it was said that the Jew has Vitamin “P” (a vitamin of Protectionism). For short, they would call it “vitamin.” For example, “he has a vitamin from this one or that one”; “he is a person with vitamins;” “there is a spot for those who have vitamins,” and the like.
[Page 415]
NOT YOUR LUCK: if a common Jew wanted to aspire to some better workplace or get something which was accessible only to the “higher” classes in the Ghetto, and his efforts did not bring any positive results, it would be said: “not your luck to get it”; “it is not your luck to access it,” etc.
MAKING A PACKAGE: one of the most painful issues in ghetto life (aside from extermination Actions, captures, and other decrees) was the question of something to eat. The Jew had to risk his life and often also the lives of his family members to acquire a bit of bread and something along with it for the family. The Gestapo would punish them very harshly for this illegal buying of food products, oftentimes also with death. However, the drive to quell their hunger did not hold anyone back from getting a bit of food through work. “Making a package” meant buying food products from Christians at affordable prices and thereafter smuggling it into the Ghetto.
COMPRESS: to illegally smuggle purchased food products in through the checkpoint at the Ghetto Gate, they would have to hide the food in various ways. One of the numerous types of disguises was “making a compress.” This meant binding up the little bit of flour, the piece of meat, butter, etc. on the body around oneself like a compress. Mainly women would do this. The checkpoint guards did not always manage to check every Jew so thoroughly each time. In this way, the majority would succeed in fooling the gate officials with a compress.
[Page 416]
BURNED UP: if the gatekeepers did find some food product on a Jew, they would confiscate it and, in addition, often punish him with a slap or a beating. In the case of confiscation, it was said that they were “burned up” at the gate. During a very strict control, the Jews would warn each other at the gate with the codeword: “we're burning!”
ORGANIZING: this meant simply swiping something from one's workplace, like for example, grain, vegetables, factory products, and the like. Several ghetto Jews paid with their lives for unsuccessful attempts at “organizing” something. For such sins they were transferred to the Gestapo. It must be said that the inhumane living conditions in the Ghetto and especially in the concentration camps would loosen people's moral inhibitions. So, with a light heart they would allow themselves various “permissions” …
MALINA: this little word had many meanings: a) a bunker or a hiding place where one could hide himself until the fury passed during an Action or some other ghetto calamity; b) a good workplace, where work conditions were favorable, and c) a place where one could buy food at inexpensive prices. In such cases they might say: I caught a real malina;” “this is a one-time malina,” and the like.
YOSHNIK: a cooked dish without meat or fat. A soup which consisted of water with some cabbage leaves and a few potatoes. The Jews would receive such “soup” at lunch at the Aerodrome and other labor sites as well as in the kitchen of the Social Office. The very word “yoshnik” means feed which is given to pigs.
[Page 417]
MALACH: someone who has a good workplace, could also be assigned to work at the Aerodrome or at another hard labor site for one or two days. A materially enabled Jew could rent a non-duty youth or older person to substitute for him. Such a substitute was called a “malach.” [angel]
STEPPING, BOTHERING: this meant working, carrying the heavy yoke of forced labor or hard labor at the Aerodrome or in a difficult city brigade.
THE TYPE OF NOURISHMENT DICTATES THE MOVEMENT: the Nazis, as we know, designated hunger-based nourishment for the Jews and, in parallel, required that the Jews do the most difficult forced labor. When a German master or guard started to force the Jews to work harder and screamed: “move!” So, the Jews murmured, more to themselves than to the Germans: “The type of nourishment dictates the movement…”
EVERY BIG SHOT HAS HIS BRIDE: it was already emphasized that certain higher functionaries in the Jewish ghetto hierarchy, from time to time, allowed themselves to have “parties” and other forms of entertainment for “their own people.” Aside from that, these elements would strongly violate the [commandment] Thou Shalt Not Covet and, also other prohibitions. Many of them had “lovers” who would exercise strong influence on their “admirers”. These “festivities in the time of an epidemic” and other outbreaks of lawlessness reached such lengths that the ghetto people responded in its fashion with a witticism or with a little folk song: “Every Yaleh has his bride, and the police… have two.”
[Page 418]
THE BROWN HOUSE: the building on Varniu Street 49, where the Elders Council, the Jewish Labor Office, and other important ghetto institutions were located, happened to be painted brown. Bolstered by the Jewish ghetto “kingdom,” Jews would sarcastically call the quarters of the Elders Council “the brown house” – a reference to Hitler's brown house…
JEWS ARE FORT PEOPLE: various German commissions and inspectors often came into the Ghetto and held conferences about the fate of the ghetto population. Understandably, Jews would truly gobble up even the smallest sound regarding decisions of the commission. In Spring 1944, when the Ghetto was already on the eve of liquidation, a commission of high Nazis came to the Ghetto. The rumor that spread among the Jews about the commission's decision regarding the Ghetto, was the following: the Commission realized that the Jews are Fort People. That meant, people who must be killed at the Fort… (the opposite possible interpretation, in this sense, was that Jews are “obviously” people).
THE MEANING OF ANOTHER THING: one ghetto Jew asks the other: “Tell me, what is the meaning of the word “another thing?” The second Jew answers: “as a matter of fact, the word “another thing” has more meanings; but the best meaning is a pig…”
SALVATION ON THE NOSE, SLAUGHTER KNIFE ON THE NECK: in July 1944, with the approach of the front line, deportation and liquidation of the Ghetto became likely. The Jews characterized that situation with the sharp minded witticism: “salvation lies on the nose, and the slaughter knife lies on the neck.” That meant, on the one hand, liberation was very close, and on the other, the danger that the Nazis would kill the rest of the surviving Jews remained.
Original footnotes:
| A Abramovich, Adv. Yakov, 311, 390 Abramovich, Dr., 370 Abramovich, 392 Acabas, Dentist, 369 Alexandrovich, 342, 399 Aloiz, Monach, 170 Altman, 332 Aranovski, 252, 311, 342 Arbeter, Dora, 259 Arliuck, 281 Arnshtam, T., 218, 293, 311, 340, 342 Auer, S. S. Staff Sergeant, 346 Axelrod, Abraham, 404, 406, 408 Aylberg, 332 |
K Kadushin, Mrs., 350 Kagan, Ch., 110, 281, 379, 399 Kagan, Dr., 369 Kagan, Dentist, Mrs., 369 Kagan, Elchanan, 193 Kagan, 394, Kagan, 332 Kalvariski, 308v Kamber, Mrs., Dr., 369 Kaminskas Ghetto spokesperson, 45, 54, 61, 285, 375 Kantorovich, 353 Kaptshevski, 326, 398 Kapit, 386 Kaplan, Mrs. Dr., 369 Kaplan, 353 Kariski, 309 Karetchinski, 311 Karpus, 332 Kaufman, Dr., 369 Kavarski, 357 Kazial, Adv., 374 Kazlovski, Chef of Ghetto guard, 64, 131, Kelzon, Agronomist, 110, 351 [von] Kepen, Ghetto spokesperson, 124, 285 Katz, Dr., 369, 399 Katz, 364 Kittel, Jewish spokesperson in Gestapo, 117, 161, 192, 196, 205, 211, 216, 218, 222, 227, 228 Kirkila, Lithuanian Officer, 42 Kizel, 100, 386 Klebanov, Dr., 369 Klibanski, Dr., 369 Klompus, 332 Klotz, 399 Koniuchovski, 332 Kopelman, 281, 311 Krak, 370 Krakinovski, Pine, 182 Krakinovski, 320 Kramer, Hans, Kovno City Commissar, 45, 68, 70, 94, 149, 309 Kram, 351 Kreve-Mitzkevicius, Professor, 24 Kubilionas, General, 34 Kupritz, 310 |
| B Baal-Machshavot, 21 Baicovitz, 357 Bargman, Engineers, 320, 338 Bar-Kupritz, 310 Bar-Vishtanetzki, Dr., 369 Barishnik, 398 Belatzkin, Prof. Shimon, 368, 390 Bentzko, Camp leader, 178, 224, 240 Beregovski, 356 Berkman, 332 Berman, R., 143, 191 Berman, Dr., 281, 369 Berniker, F., 379 Bernstein, Adv. Israel, 298, 346, 377 Bernstein Fritz, 329 Bernstein, 356 Birger, 311 Blatt, 332 Bliacher, 358 Bloch, Sh., 352 Bliasberg, Dr. 369 Blumberg, Dr., 369 Blumental, Eng., T., 252, 332 Bonim, 347 Borstein, brothers, 309 Bobialis, Polkovnik, 34, 41 Borochovitz, Alte, 193 Braunz, Dr., 369 Braz, 332 Brakaytiteh, Ana, Monachin, 170 Bramson, M., 193, 252, 311, 348 Brick, H., 110 Broude, Rabbi, 414 Buch, Adv., 390 Bukantz, 311, 319 Burstein,Michal, 247, 252, 379 Burstein, Daniel, 247 Burstein, 251 |
L Lapidus, 356 Lazerson, Professor, 369 Leibowich-Goldshmidt, Dentist, Mrs., 370 Leibowic h, Ch., 370 Leibzon, 332 Leibenzon, I., 379 Lemchen, 100 Levin, Hirsh, 192, 266, 298, 346, 398, 399 Levin, Mogie, 196 Levin, 205 Levin, Moshe, 156, 192, 206, 311, 399, Levin, Rafael, 266, 323 Levin, 350 Levin, 370 Levin-Abramovitch, 266 Levin, 386, Levin, Mrs. Dr., 244 Levitan, 309 Levitan, Dr., 337, 399 Levner, 205 Levenshtein, 342 Lint, 309, 332 Lipman, 385 Liptzer, Benno, 89, 114, 115, 116, 117, 143, 211, 216, 286, 311, 370 Lipshitz, 332, 334 Lipshitz, R., 370 Lipshitz-Veiner, 370 Lipshitz, 392 Lubetzki, 332 Luntz, Mrs. Adv., 390 Lurieh, Adv., Volf, 293, 328, 340 Lurieh, 332 Lurieh, I., 342 Lurieh, 347 Lurieh, Dentist, 369 |
| C Caspi-Serebrovitch, 113, 114, 286 Chatzkels, Helene, 266 Charashtenishok, 332 Chaikin, Adv., 377, 379 Cheitin, 399 Chvales, 311, 342 Cohen, Arieh, 397, 399, 400 Cohen, Berl, 266, 399 |
M Makovski, Av., 332 Mapu, Abraham, 21 Margolis, P., 156, 293, 325, 340 Margolis, Dentist, Mrs. 370 Markovski, N., 156, 338, 340, 411 Markovski, 326 Matematik, Chaim, 117 Mattis, Dr., Moshe, 369 Mattis, Dr. (son), 369 Matz, Dr., Shmuel, 36 Meizel, Olia, 193 Melamed, Abraham, 386, 397, 399 Melamdovich, 308, 326, 344 Mendelson, 326 Mek, 130, 132, 133 Meris, 344 Meshkotz, 364, 399 Mia, Camp Commander, 176, 177 Mizrach, 332 Mihles, brothers, 110 Mil, Engineer, 316, 332 Miller, Ghetto Spokesperson, 133, 285 Milshtein, 349 Mishelski, Engineer, 394 Mudrik, 351 |
| D Davidovich, Mrs., 323 Davidovich, 329 Davidovich, 335 Deitsch, A., 323 Diner, Adv., 266 Dukshtulski, Mrs., 309 Dvoretzki, 353 |
N Nabriski, Dr., 370 Nachumovski, Dr., 337 Nachumzon, 332 Naftal, 332 Nakan, Dr., 369 Natkin, 342 Neividel, 348 Neishtot, 398 Nechmod, 310 Nementshik, Dentist, Mrs., 370 Nissenbaum, 332 |
| E Edelshtein, 357 Eizenshtat, Dr., 370 Elkes, Dr., Elchanan, 47, 53, 73, 80, 106, 131, 158, 166, 202, 218, 219, 233, 283, 284, 286, 294, 295, 296, 297, 370, 397, 400 Elkes, Dr., G., 369 Elshtein, 299 Epshtein, 349, Epshtein, R., 370 |
O Ogoz, 323 Olayski, Agronomist, Yakov, 334 Olitzki, Dentist, 370 Oretshkin, Boris, 136, 332 Orlianski, Dr., 369 Oshry, Rabbi, 384 Osovski, Rabbi, 38 Ozhinsky, Eng., 392 |
| F Fin, 357 Finkel, 309 Finkelshtein, Dr., Ch., 337 Finkelshtein, 392 Fleishman, S=Chef from Ghetto guard, 130, 132 Flink-Yoselevich, 370 Flier, 329 Feldshtein, Dr., 369 Felman, 334 Fentzter, 357 Friedman, B., 110 Friedman, Benyamin, 266 Freidman, brothers, 332 Friedman, Dr., 337 Freidman, 332 Frenkel, Engineer, 319 Frenkel, Herman, 320 Frenkel, Shlomo, 397, 400 Frenkel, V., 332 Frenkel, Sh., 334 |
P Padison, 311 Paletzskis, Justas, 25 Panemunski, 311 Paukshtis, Galach, 170 Pertzikovich, Dr., 369 Perkol, 342 Pilovnik, Aydl, 193 Pilovnik, Tuvia, 193 Pilgram, S.S. Staff Sergeant, 198, 234, 244 Pikert, 332 Potroch, 346 Pol, General, 279 Pomerantz, 309 Portnoy, Dr., 182 Prisman, 326 |
| G Gadiel, 394 Gottstein, 399 Golach, Professor, Dr., 369 Goldberg, Adv. Yakov, 47, 219, 279, 284, 297, 298, 320 Goldberg, Eng., 329 Goldstein, Sh., 374, 399 Goldschmidt, Engineer, F., 266, 347 Golub, Adv. Abraham, 284, 299, 385, 397, 399 Gotz, Fr., 370 Gar, Yosef, 266, 332 Garber, Sonia, 266 Gordon, 332 Garfunkel, Av. Leib, 47, 219, 252, 279, 284, 296, 297, 397 Gutman, 100 Gurvitch, L., 357 Gurvitch-Eliashkevitch, Dr., 369 Gurvitch, Dr., 369 Gurvitch, Mrs. Dr., 266 Gurvitch, 386 Gurvitch, Miss., 394 Gershovitch, Adv., N., 332, 364, 374, Gershovitch, Agronomist, 351 Glagovski, R., 370 Gladstein, 309 Glazman, Yosef, 114 Glatt, Sh., 374 Glickman, 332 Glickman, Dentist, 369 Gemelitzki, 110, 281, 346 Gempel, 90 Goecke, S.S, Lt. Colonel, 100, 116, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 157, 158, 161, 166, 173, 180, 181, 185, 186, 187, 189, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 212, 213, 218, 219, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 228,232, 233, 234, 237, 238, 241, 286, 294, 295, 309, 344, 355, 356, Gerber, Dr., 90 Gerstein, Dr., 369 Gerstein, 384 Grossman, 311 Griliches, 323 Griliches, Dentist, 369 Grinberg, Dr., 332, 369 Grinberg, 334 Grinberg, Yitzhak, 99, 192, 206, 311 Grinhouse, Dr., Shmuel, 252, 320 Grinfeld, 251 |
R Rabinovich, Dr., Yefim, 47, 279, 398 Rabinovich, Dr., Itzhak, 106, 344 Rabinovich, Mrs., 344 Rabinovich, B., 335 Rabinovich, 348 Rapaport, 356 Ratner, Engineer, Sh., 156, 190, 334 Ratner, David, 156, 191 Ratnikas, Lithuanian Police officer, 135 Rauca, Gestapo-official, 55, 72, 73, 76, 77, 78, 84, 163, 294 Rauzuk, 398 Razin, Dr., 349 Razin, 394 Rebelski, Professor, 266 Rein, 333 Reiness, Engineer, 332 Reznik, 358 Richman, Dr., 370 Ring, S.S. Captain, 110 Rochelzon, 357 Roginski, Engineer, 281 Rostowski, 299 Rozmarin, 309 Rozenberg, Alfred, Reich person, 100 Rozenberg, 397-398 Rozental, Sh, 384 Rozenblat, 386 Rozenbaum, 394 Rozenblum, Mrs. Dr., 369 Rubinson, 311 Rutenberg, Adv., 390 |
| H Hauer, George, 111 Haid, Percy, 309 Halpern, Dimeh, 190 Hofmekler, Misha, 309 Hirsh, 332 Herman, S.A. Captain, 105, 106, 141, 343, 344 I Idelson, 332 Ingel, 370 Indurski, 349 Isserlis, 251, 342 Ipp, Dr., 370 Ipp, Leib, 398 Itzikovich, David, 385 Irena, 146 |
S Sadovski, Engineer, 334, 399 Sapozshnikov, Menashe, 191 Segal, Dr., 369, 374 Segal, Mrs. Dr., 386 Segal, R., 349 Segalovski, 347 Segalson, M., 110 Segalson, Prov., 350 Seletzki, 350 Senior, Leah, 193 Shabashevich, 332 Shauchet, 374 Shachnovski, Engineer, 332 Shalit, 358 Shalitan, Z., 342 Shapiro, Rabbi, 73, 279, 294, 385, Shapiro, Dr., Chaim-Nachman, 298, 385, 386, 397, 398, 399 Shapiro, R., 370 Shapiro, Itzchak, 386,397, 398 Shafranski, 332 Shevtz, 370 Shenker, Shaul, 410 Sherman, Moshe, 191, 266 Shinberg, Adv., 299, 357, 390 Shkirpa, Polkovnik, 34 Shtitz, Jewish spokesperson in Gestapo, 115, 117, 128, 136 Shtein, 332 Shtein, Dentist Mrs., 370 Shteinberg, 357 Shub, 399 Shvartz, Y., 110 Shvartz, Sh., 342 Shtreichman, 281 Shlopoberski, Dr., 344 Shmerkovich, 374, 399 Shmidt, Dr. 350 Shmidt, 394 Shmuckler, Rabbi, 47, 279, 298 Shmuckler, Mrs. Dr., 310 Shmuckler, 299 Shor, 309 Shpegel, 251 Slonimski, Engineer, 332 Slominski, 342 Slove, R., 370 Smetana, Antanas, 19, 24, 46 Snieg, Rabbi, 47, 279, 298 Snieg, Mrs., 386 Sobolevich, Mrs., 386 Solomin, 266 Srebnitzki, Prov., 350, 398, 399 Srebnitzki, 347 Srolovich, 332 Starovolski, A., 332 Stofel, Abrasha, 309 Stokol, 386 Strashon, Frida, 266 Strelitz, A., 370 Sudak-Katz, 370 Sukenik, 320 Svirski, 364 |
| T Tamshe, Dr., 332 Tankel, Mrs. Dr., 369 Tarko, I., 342 Telzak, brothers, 358 Tchatch, B., 308, 399 Tepper, David, 266 Tint, Z., 370 Tornbaum, Police Chief, 57, 76, Tubialis, Lithuaian Prime Minister, 295 Treger, D., 347, 374 TZ Tzarfat, Mrs., 386 Tzarfat, Reuven, 413 Tzeitel, Dr., 369 Tzindler, 335 Tzipin, 332 Tzipkin, Abraham, 332, 405 Tzitzes, 332 |
|
| U Ullman, 356 |
|
| V Valsonok, Dr., Rudolf, 191, 328, 379 Varantz, 347 Vashtshin, Dr., 370 Verbovski, Yankel, 171, 342 Volf, Dr., Gregory, 47, 281, 298 Volf, Dr., 332 Volfberg, 309 Volfe, 379 Volfert, 251 Volfovich, 386 Voskoboynik, 398 Videman, Ghetto spokesperson, 285 Viduchinski, Dr., 370 Veiner, 308 Veintroib, 364 Vilenski, 351 Vindsberg, Dr., 337 Vinik, 323, 332 |
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| Y Yasvon, 332 Yatkonski, Mordechai, 37 Yatkonski, Dentist, Mrs., 38 Yatzkan, 333 Yeglin, 374 Yeger, S.A.-Shtandartnfurer, 279, Yellin, Chaim, 145, 190, 225, 226 227, 228 Yellin, L., 234, 358 Yellin, Engineer, 266, 332 Yellin, 309 Yellin, Mrs., 266 Yeshurin, 332 Yitzhak-Elhanan, Head Rabbi, 21, 106 Yochelson, I., 346 Yochelson, Mrs. Dr., 369 Yoels, 357 Yordan, Ghetto spokesperson, 46, 56, 59, 61, 62, 76, 78, 84, 94, 95, 96, 107, 121, 285 Yotkovski, 344 |
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| Z Zacharin, Dr., 249, 369 Zak, Adv., 311, 332, 390 Zaks, Yakov, 310 Zaks, 326 Zaltsberg, Dr., 369 Zeltzer, 311 Zhopovich, 342, 386 Zhopovich, Yudel, 206, 311 Zieman, H., 226 Zilberkveit, Adv., 205, 311 Zilberman, 377 Zundelevich, 323 |
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