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Our property in Drohobycz consisted of a large yard and two houses – a new one and an old one – and a beautiful garden. Beside it was the great synagogue with halls for men and women, room for thousands; it was built for glory. The Holy Ark, made by an artist, the son of a Hasid, who trained in iron craft in Berlin, served to house dozens of Torah scrolls. We established a substantial yeshiva there under the management of Rabbi Kitaigorodski, who moved to the United States after we left for Eretz Israel. An elaborate bathhouse, where one could bathe or sweat, and a kosher, clean mikveh^[3] for the benefit of the community, were also built in our yard by the gabbai^[4], Mr Joseph Kolb z'l, whose daughter and son-in-law, “may they live,” now reside in Tel Aviv. Mr. Kolb visited my father z'l^[5] many times when he was the manager of a large oil field in Borysław. The owners were French. Once, my father z'l asked him (Mr. Kolb) how he observed the Sabbath. He was startled and replied that he had no choice but had to work every day of the week. My father z'l told him that he must not desecrate the Sabbath and advised him to give up his job. He obeyed and subsequently succeeded in business and his name was widely known for his demeanor and good deeds. Later, my father appointed him gabbai in our synagogue, where he made repairs and improved its glory.

About fifty years ago, my late wife z”l visited her parents in Poland with our eldest son S. Shalom^[6], “may he live.” I stayed home. The famous cantor Zeidel Rovner^[7] was visiting Drohobycz with his choir and stayed with me. All the rehearsals for the choral concerts, accompanied by an orchestra, were held in the women's synagogue.

That same year, we heard the terrible news about the pogrom in Kishinev^[8]. Thousands of refugees began to arrive from Russia. They had escaped with few possessions. These events aroused great concern in the heart of my father z'l. To come to their aid, he decided to hold a concert in our synagogue in which Mr Zeidel Rovner and his choir would sing excerpts from Lamentations and El Male Rahamim^[9], a prayer for the dead. For this purpose, he called a planning meeting headed by Mr Alter Hausner, an important, distinguished man, of whom the wealthy of Drohobycz were a little afraid. Thousands of people from all walks of life came to the concert; the women's synagogue was filled to capacity. Before the reciting of El Male Rahamim by Mr. Rovner, my father z'l ordered that the lamps be extinguished. Darkness and silence reigned in the hall; several women fainted. The concert made a great impression. Then it was decided to arrange a protest march to the area where the wealthy residents of the town lived, the oil tycoons who had been absent from the memorial meeting. Thousands of people marched in the demonstration; windowpanes were smashed. The next day money began to flow to the refugees' aid. My father z'l founded an aid committee and Mr. Rafael Soferman served as secretary. He was the son of a Chortkov Hasid. His father the Hasid sat shiva^[10] for him when he began to devote himself to science and culture. Rafael Soferman later served as head of the Hebrew teachers in Tel Aviv. Long tables were set in our synagogue, and my father ordered the yeshiva students to serve the food cooked in our kitchen to the refugees. A large Passover seder was also held for five hundred refugees. Among them were lawyers, doctors, and scientists, but since they were far from Judaism many people in the synagogue did not even show them respect with a greeting of “shalom.” We contacted other committees in Lwów and Kraków. The refugees were given tickets expenses

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to Kraków and from there they were provided with funds for travel to the United States. We later received letters from many of those refugees who had decided to become closer to ultra-Orthodox Judaism because of the impression made on them by the yeshiva students with their long sidelocks, who had served them food with courtesy and love. They had always thought that the ultra-Orthodox stayed away from mutual aid and love for Israel, but in Drohobycz the true face of ultra-Orthodox Judaism was revealed to them.

About thirty-six years ago, when I traveled with my father z'l from Vienna to sell all the aforementioned property to finance our travel to Eretz Israel, we stayed in Drohobycz for about two weeks. The house had been purchased by the wealthy Hasid, the late R' Abraham Backenroth. Even though the value of the Polish marka^[11] fell drastically in the period between the purchase and the payment, with the result that we made less money, my father z'l was very happy. His wish was now fulfilled, to leave the diaspora and purchase property in the Holy Land. In the same week, a farewell meal was held in the synagogue; all the townspeople attended. Important people also came from the surrounding cities, among them Dr Reich^[12], the well-known Zionist leader. My father ended his farewell speech with the following words: 'I must thank you for all the kindness you have shown me. You treated me with great respect during all the years that I had the pleasure of living among you. And what have I given back to you for all the respect you have shown me? I have given you my blessing each time you presented your heart's wishes to me. It may be that on many occasions my blessing helped, since as our Sages have said, no blessing will be slight in His eyes. But God has rewarded me well for this, because at every opportunity and at every table, as is customary, I have preached sayings from the Torah, love of peace and unity, love of your fellow Jews, and love of Eretz Israel. If you keep these things in your hearts and live by them, my conscience will be clear, for as I have taken from you, I have also returned good and useful things. But if, God forbid, you forget these things, you will make me worse than a trader.”

My father told me that he intended to show his people that he left the diaspora at a time when the Jews of Poland were rich and successful, so that they too could save their lives and property in time, for their own benefit and for the benefit of all Jews. I wish they would have followed is example.

With God's help, Jerusalem, 5717^[13]

Editor's Footnotes

1. Admor: the word is an acronym in Hebrew for Adonenu, Morenu Ve-Ravenu (our master, our teacher, our rabbi). It is the title for a spiritual leader in the Hasidic movement. Return
2. Abraham Jakob Shapira (1886-1964) was Admor in Drohobycz. He was the son of Chaim Mair Yechiel Shapira, 1863-1924) who was Admor in Drohobycz. He was known as the Admor the Painter, a rabbi-artist. Return
3. Mikveh is a bath used for immersion to achieve ritual purity. Return
4. Gabbai: one who assists in the running of a synagogue or its religious services. Return
5. The author refers to his father by the Hebrew acronym of: Adoni, Avi, Mori, Ve Rabi - My master, father, teacher, and rabbi. Return
6. Shalom Yosef Shapira (1904-1990), known by the pen name Shin Shalom, was an Israeli poet, author and translator. Return
7. Zeidel Rovner (1856-1943) was born in Radomyshl, Ukraine in 1856 as Jacob Samuel Morogowski. His maternal grandfather and his mother affectionately called him Zeidel (grandfather in Yiddish) and his surname is derived from the city of Rovno, Russia, where he served as a cantor. Zeidel Rovner was a prolific, popular composer who published and recorded some of his works. Between 1882 and 1914 he served as a cantor in the cities of Kishinev, Berdichev, Lemberg, Rovno, and London, where he also gave concerts. Return
8. Two major anti-Jewish pogroms occurred in Kishinev (modern Chişinău, Moldova), then the capital of the Bessarabia Governorate in the Russian Empire, on 6–7 April 1903 and 19–20 October 1905. Return
9. El Malei Rachamim (God full of compassion) is a prayer for the soul of a person who has died. Return
10. Shivat. seven) is the week-long mourning period in Judaism for first-degree relatives. Return
11. The Polish marka was the currency of the Kingdom of Poland and the Republic of Poland between 1917 and 1924. Return
12. Leon Reich (1879-1929) was a Zionist politician and publisher who was born in Drohobycz. Return
13. This is would have been written in 1956 or 1957. Return

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A. Drohobycz

The righteous Rabbi Chaim Meyer Yehiel Shapira or R' Chaimoni, as thousands of his admirers and khasidim called him, was born in 5624 (1863). His father was the righteous rabbi R' Ezra Selig and his mother, the rebbetzin Hadassah Feige.^[1] She was the granddaughter of R' Israel of Ruzhyn,^[2] the tzadik^[3] who was admired by many khasidim and tzadikim of his generation. R' Israel of Ruzhyn was arrested by the Tsarist authorities because they suspected that he supported Turkey and also intended to rule over Israel. On his father's side, R' Chaim inherited humility and modesty, a broken heart and the repressed spirit of Mogielnica^[4] and Kozhnitz.^[5] His mother was the daughter of the Sadigura rabbi;^[6] from her he inherited the glory, the nobility, and the majesty of Ruzhyn-Sadigura.^[7] These two legacies were a wonderful blend that gave R' Chaim his delightful personality and modesty. After the death of R' Abraham Jacob of Sadigura, R' Chaim's father, who was the son-in-law of the Sadigura rabbi, moved to the city of Stryj.^[8] Because he imposed various afflictions on his body, such as fasts and rolling in snow, he did not live long. After the death of his father, R' Chaimoni moved to Drohobycz.

The people of the city of Drohobycz received him with affection and treated him with respect during the time he lived there. Fifty years ago, Drohobycz was flourishing because of its petroleum resources. The Jews called it the America of Galicia. Wealthy and influential people appeared overnight and Jews came from near and far to settle there. His influence on the city's inhabitants was immense and he used his influence to benefit the public. The beautiful house of study with its court that the people of Drohobycz built for the rabbi served as a shelter for the poor and oppressed.

The rabbi never performed miracles or interfered in matters of infertility. He did not create an atmosphere of fear with wonders and miracles. He did not enter a partnership in a petroleum business. He did not act in a superior manner. There was glory in him but not arrogance. His outstanding virtues attracted the devotion of the community of Drohobycz and its surrounding. He associated with everyone in the city, even the wealthy and mighty who were immersed in the impurity of money. Like Hillel,^[9] he had patience with everyone. He found that generosity was a special virtue in the residents of Drohobycz and used this virtue for the benefit of Judaism. When he came to the town, he did not find a well-managed rabbinical court. He brought in expert judges and set up a court that was a glory for Judaism. In his house of study he seated students who engaged in the Torah. Since every city without the Torah is likely to be destroyed, the rabbi founded a yeshiva in his house, so that along with the smell of oil in the city, there was also the fragrance of the Torah. For years the talented scholars, the brothers R' Abraham and R' Rafael Kitaigorodsky, who had come to Galicia after the Russo-Japanese War, served as heads of the yeshiva. In every enterprise of charity and kindness, R' Chaim Meyer was a pillar of strength, especially when Russian refugees flooded Galicia. He gave food and drink to about 1,600 Russian refugees who had come to the town and took care of their needs. For about twenty-five years, R' Chaim Meyer engaged in religious enterprises and acts of charity and kindness for the benefit of Drohobycz.

During the elections of 5671 (1911) to the local and state governments, R' Chaim Meyer demanded that his khasidim vote in favor of the Zionist list. It was a great, daring act against Drohobycz's tough assimilationists, who helped the Polish landowners to control government institutions. It is known that Drohobycz was covered in blood at that time when Jakob Feuerstein, who was the head of the landowners' sycophants, ordered the Austrian policemen to shoot into the crowd of Jews who forced their way in to vote in favor of the Zionist candidate.^[10] But the rabbi,

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honest with himself, surrendered only to the command of his conscience. He was not afraid of the attackers, who used the most aggressive means against their opponents, even by the immoral means of forgery. He did not heed the opinion of other admorim^[11] who fought against Zionism but was openly supportive of Zionist striving for the revival of Israel. Nevertheless, the speculators and the owners the oil mines adored and loved him because they knew that a holy man resided among them. The tzadik lived in Drohobycz until the defeat of Austria in Elul 5674 (1914).

With the outbreak of the First World War, he had moved from Drohobycz to Hungary, and from there to Vienna. There he gathered around him young admorim, the great-grandchildren of Ruzhyn-Sadigura, and a circle of khasidim and founded the society Yishuv Eretz Yisrael^[12] that was annexed to Mizrachi^[13] after the war. He participated in the twelfth Zionist Congress in Karlsbad (Karlovy Vary) and the Mizrahi World Conference that was held in that city. He was active in the society's affairs and in sending pioneers (halutzim) to Israel. He took care of all their needs and blessed them, saying, “You are blessed for doing this. I wish I could join you soon.” He did not care about his honour nor fear the lack of money. He spent his last funds to send a telegram to the San Remo Peace Conference to demand Israel for the Jews. And later, when the Jewish rights to the land of Israel were confirmed in San Remo, he bought all the copies of the special edition of the Viennese newspaper and standing in the street dressed in festive attire, he gave the newspaper, free of charge, to every passerby.

In Vienna, the rabbi of Drohobycz devoted himself especially to the work of building Israel which was the main goal of his life. He had inherited affection for the country from his father, who also aspired, during the few days of his life, to settle in Israel. To persuade his wife to follow him, he promised her a share in paradise. Even before Herzl's^[14] Zionism, Rabbi Chaim dealt with the establishment of a bank that would serve to financially assist the settlement of the country. Together with Mr Meyer Chaim Beck from Jerusalem, he tried to establish a bank for the affairs of the yishuv^[15] and enlist the help of influential admorim and rabbis. However, when Herzl's plan came up, he abandoned this idea in order to ensure unity in the project.

The Shapira family stayed in Vienna for eight years. In 5682 (1922) Rabbi Chaimoni and his family emigrated to Jerusalem before the Passover holiday. He was blessed that the dream of his life came true. He brought his ninety-year-old mother who had known the founders of the khasidic movement in Israel. Although he lived in Jerusalem for a short time, he managed to have great influence on religious life of the entire nation. He had no opponents but was admired by all the factions in Israel. In that short time, he managed to be close to secular groups, the ultra-Orthodox, and even the old settlers. He was adored by all who knew his noble attributes, his pure soul, and that his heart that burned with love for the Jewish people and their sacred land.

At the end of the summer of 5683 (1923), he was diagnosed with cancer. He was not told that his life was in danger but was sent to Vienna in the hope that a cure would be found there. He underwent surgery; the operation was successful, but he became weak due to a lung disease that struck him while he was in Vienna. During all his days in Vienna he could not find peace for his soul because he longed for Jerusalem. He was so frail that the ship's agents were reluctant to accept him as a passenger in case he should die on the voyage. It was only when he boarded the ship that joy lifted his spirits; all signs of weakness passed and he became a different person. He returned from Vienna a few days before Passover. But the cancer struck him again and he died on 30 Nisan 5684 (4 May, 1924) to the sorrow of thousands of his admirers and those who respected him. More than ten thousand people attended his funeral in Jerusalem. People from all circles, from the secular to the ultra-Orthodox, came to pay their last respects. He was of a citizen of Jerusalem, perhaps more than Drohobycz, because he had worked for Jerusalem all the days that he was the Rabbi of Drohobycz.

Many remember this extraordinary man of spirit and a great heart, full of love for Israel, an attribute he inherited from his great ancestors. Truth, peace, and unity were the principles of this great man. If his followers and admirers said that he embodied the “righteousness that is the foundation of the world,” it would not have been poetic rhetoric, but rather a proper description that the deceased deserved. His grandfather, R' Abraham Jakob zt”l of Sadigura, who raised him and supported him after his marriage, said of R' Chaim Meyer, when he was still a little boy, “He is all goodness.” Because indeed, this wonderful man was all good: good to heaven and good to the people. He loved God, served him with all his heart and soul, with enthusiasm and faith, but was humble with his God. His mother Hadassah Feige used to say that when the month of Elul arrived, he would burn his fingers, an ascetic practice to aid in adapting to the torments of repentance. When asked about the scars of his burns, he would reply kindly: it is nothing, I was burnt accidentally. His was always kind to people; his house was wide open to the poor and desperate. He shared his bread with the them and gave his last slices to the wanderers and the unfortunate.

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Religion, faith, national destiny, love of Israel, and love of all human beings were the convictions of his soul; there was place for all in his heart and spirit. The Admor was a holy man of distinguished and noble character. He did not refrain from welcoming both enlightened and educated people and even those who were free in their beliefs and opinions, provided that they were faithful sons of the people and faithful to the resurrection of the land of their forefathers. He did not reject or banish them. On the contrary, he brought their hearts closer and put them under the wings of the Divine and the nation. And thus did the righteous man behave throughout his life. The Jewish Torah served him as a source of love, not a reason for hatred, to bring people closer rather than pushing them away. Instead of hating a Jew for an offense he committed, he loved him for the mitzvah that he observed. He hated those who spread hatred. This is the key to understanding his great patience towards those who abandoned religious observance, which was needed then in Drohobycz, a city that was deeply immersed in money and wealth. He himself was a very devout man who observed even insignificant details in ritual but treated those who changed their religion without anger or hatred.

Zionism, or Hibbat Zion,^[16] was one of the cornerstones of his worldview. It began long before Herzl, in the days of Sir Laurance Oliphant.^[17] He recalled where the candle of Zion had been lit in his heart. His grandfather, Rabbi Abraham Jakob sat in his “royal” court in Sadigura surrounded by tens of thousands of admiring khasidim in Russia, Romania, Austria, and Hungary. He was even known among the Gentiles. He was a representative of the glory of Judaism. Khasidim traveled to see his radiant face and the royal court of Sadigura. One day Sir Laurence Oliphant, a wonderful English minister, came to Sadigura. He had dreamed of the return of the Jews to their land. The Englishman asked the rabbi to lead the movement for the return to Zion. He responded: “the Jews are expecting a miraculous, not a natural redemption.” But indeed, he added: “should it come naturally, it will also be accepted. The main thing is that the Jews will be redeemed.” Since that time, a flame was ignited in the grandson's heart and the love of Zion and Jerusalem burned in him until he passed away. His love for Israel grew in him no less than his love for the Jews. He left all the honour and respect and the life of wealth and pleasure he had known in Drohobycz and emigrated when he was fifty-eight years old. And he said to his sons: “if you take it upon yourself emigrate to Jerusalem, prepare for hunger for bread, in the literal sense. If you are not prepared, stay where you are.”

Peace and unity were touchstones of his life. In his simplicity and humility, he did not put his ideas on paper or write them in a book. He printed only one small book in his lifetime, and it was only in the form of a collection; it was titled Peace and Unity. He devoted much effort to his small book, searching through almost all of the Talmudic literature, Kabbalah, and khasidut.^[18] When he left Drohobycz, thousands of people came to bid him farewell, from the extremists of the khasidut to the common people. And these were his words to them, “You treated me with respect all the days I was here. I lacked nothing. I also received from you the house of study, outstanding in its beauty, and what have I given you? Therefore, please have mercy on me, on my honour, and receive something from me as well. Please keep within you forever the peace and unity that I made an effort to plant in you.”

Another principle of his world view was the concept of hard labour. Rabbi Chaim Meyer preached this theory to his khasidim in the diaspora, and repeated it also when he came to Israel, to Jerusalem. He gathered around him a circle of khasidim, wise people who learned from him the theory of hard labour as a major principle for human correction. And he not only demanded but also fulfilled what he preached to others. His sons who came with him to Israel earned their living from their labour, from bookbinding and watchmaking. He spoke admiringly of physical labour. The rabbi settled in Shkhunat HaBukharim^[19] in Jerusalem. When he saw from a distance a Bukharan porter walking with heavy steps until the earth trembled beneath him, lifting with his mighty arms a huge cupboard, just as one lifts a bundle of cotton, his handsome face lit up with a wondrous light. Through his golden glasses, warm glances caressed the porter's enlarged body, his wide shoulders, and legs, solid like marble pillars, as if he were saying to himself, “Here you have a Jew with strength; thank God, it is refreshing to look at him.” Those who were with him stood and wondered in great astonishment; look how this prince of the houses of Ruzhyn and Kozhnitz, the royal houses in the khasidut admires the Jewish layman whose whole value is in his solid shoulders?

One of his virtues was humility; he was humble like Hillel in his time. How much he suffered when his father-in-law ordered him to wear the admor's crown on his head. “If he ordered me to be a porter, I would have received the order with joy, but to be a rabbi to khasidim.” He liked to become closer to the ordinary people and spoke simply without secrets and hints, as other admorim do. He spoke to the craftsman, the shopkeeper, and the labourer. He did not distance himself from the masses of Jews and there was no separation between them and him. He used to say, “Holy Jews have given us so many admorim, but what have we given them?”

His patience and kindness were wonderfully expressed even in the days when he was ill with cancer. His suffering was unbearable and yet there was no anger in him during his illness. He carried everything in silence, joy, and restraint in his terrible torments; he endeavored to increase in himself the attribute of love and embraced all those close to him. As he died, the love of the Jews and Israel burned in his heart with a blazing flame.

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E. Memories from his court

In 1911, I came from Sadigura to Drohobycz to study with HaRav HaGaon R' Rafael Kitaigorodsky at the yeshiva that had been established there by the Admor of Drohobycz. The yeshiva was located in the Admor's court and we studied in the house of study and in the big garden that also belonged to the Admor's court. I had already heard of the aforementioned Admor in Sadigura but here in Drohobycz, I came to know him, since I was a frequent visitor to his home.

The Admor was a descendant of Rabbi Yisroel of Ruzhyn z”l, the one imprisoned by the Russian Tsar because of the royal manners he conducted in his court. It is told, that in his court there was a golden chair on which was engraved “David King of Israel lives and endures.” The mother of the Admor of Drohobycz, Rebbetzin Hadassah Feigele, who emigrated to Israel and died in Jerusalem at the age of nearly one hundred, was the Ruzhyner's granddaughter. When he was in jail, Hadassah Feige sat by his feet; she told us how the khasidim came, took him from there, and moved him to Sadigura, which was then under Austrian rule. The khasidim had bribed the prison guards with a barrel full of gold. They opened the gates and fled together with them. When the Ruzhyner arrived in Sadigura, he did not become an Austrian citizen. He brought with him a Turkish travel document that read, “Resident of Jerusalem.”

Since that time, all the family members were residents of Jerusalem. I remember that when I was staying at the rabbi's court I was always received with courtesy and respect. The old woman liked me and brought me close to her, possibly because I came from Sadigura. She talked to me for many hours and was interested in all the details of what was going on in the Sadigura court, the city life in general, and the “ the Sabbath and holiday tables. At every opportunity, she introduced me as the one who had studied in Sadigura.

I remember the beautifully furnished large hall and the many antique objects. On the eastern wall there was an unpainted, bare area. Above it, there was an inscription, “In remembrance of the destruction.” The son of the same Hadassah Feige was the Admor of Drohobycz, Rabbi Chaim Meyer Yehiel Shapira z”l (known in the khasidic world as R' Chaimoni), or also the Drohobyczer Rabbi. This Admor, in whose presence I had the privilege and honour of being for several years, burned in the fire of love for Zion. He instilled this love to all who were in his presence. R' Chaimoni, as his many admirers called him, was orphaned when his father, R' Selig, son of the Mogielnica Rabbi^[20] had died when he was still a child. He was educated at the home of his maternal grandfather the Sadigura Rabbi. When he was a little boy, Minister Laurence Oliphant, a nobleman from England who dreamed of the return of the Jews to their land, visited his grandfather. He sought to influence the Sadigura rabbi to approve his plan and lead the project. Because of warnings and threats that the rabbi had previously received from fanatical circles, the conversation brought no results. The khasidut world looked upon this matter with contempt. As far as they were concerned, a certain decorated “Sir” came to him with an entourage of idlers and wished to mend in a short time what God had not been able to mend for a thousand and nine hundred years of exile...

But the rabbi z”l thought otherwise. He said with a sigh, “Let them be this way, redemption would come soon.

The rabbi of Drohobycz mentioned these words many times and added that the fate of his life have been decided then. For he believed that Israel could also be built in a natural way and that it was up to us to do it.

The entire life of R' Chaimoni was one long chain of days devoted entirely to the building of Israel. Even before the appearance of Herzl, he travelled with R' Chaim Beck to the courts of the admorim for the purpose of establishing a bank for the settlement of Israel. Because he understood that great division among people interferes with action, he wrote his book Peace and Unity, although its distribution cost him all his fortune. The book made a great impression on the Jewish public but also aroused great anger in ultra-Orthodox circles, since he advocated peace and unity even for criminals.

In Drohobycz, his hometown, his court and synagogue became a meeting place for all lovers of Zion. The writer of these lines, who has visited many rabbis' courts and knew them well, remembers the noble figure of the rabbi of Drohobycz, R' Chaimoni, a descendant of the honourable and important Ruzhyn house. As the leader of thousands of khasidim, his many admirers found in him a wonderful fusion of the greatness in the Torah, khasidic wisdom and depth, love of Jews near and far, love of peace and unity, affection for Israel, devotion to its establishment, and involvement in the teaching of the Torah. He strengthened the yeshiva in his court under the direction of the great scholars, Rafael and Abraham Kitaigorodsky. He talked about religious issues whenever he could. His radiant features produced sadness, grace, and supreme nobility. The rabbi of Drohobycz was well versed in world affairs in general and the state of Judaism in various diasporas in particular. At the same time, he also maintained many connections and friendly relations with the leaders of Judaism. These connections, especially with the circles of ultra-Orthodox and observant Judaism and with the great rabbis of the time and their admorim made him an influential personality.

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Together with all his superior virtues, R' Chaimoni excelled in his simplicity and humility. He was close to his khasidim and all found in him a friend in heart and soul. I was privileged because from my first day in Drohobycz, he brought me close to him and invited me to converse about Sadigura and the state of my studies. When he heard that I spoke Hebrew, he spoke in Hebrew to me. Since then, we spoke only Hebrew at every opportunity. He gave me an important role, to teach his grandson Shalom'niu, the well-known poet Shin Shalom.^[21] I was to teach him Hebrew and was paid generously. Every week he also gave me two crowns as pocket money.

All those who were in his company were good Jews, activists, philanthropists, and scholars. I remember some of them by name: R' Shlomo the ritual slaughterer, a beloved Jew of distinguished character, who worked diligently for the mitzvah of hospitality. This R' Shlomo did not sit for a Sabbath meal without a minyan^[22] of guests at his table. And when he could not find enough guests in the synagogue, he ran from one house of study to another until he got a minyan. The meal on the Sabbath eve at the home of R' Shlomo the ritual slaughterer never ended before midnight. Of the supporters of the yeshiva, I must mention: R' Solomon Backenroth, R' Moses Gruber, R' Moses Stahl, Josef Kolb, R' Simcha Segal father of Shimon Segal (in Tel Aviv). R' David Schreiber, grandson of the Chatam Sofer,^[23] was known by the name “the President” (he served most of his days as the president of Kollel Galicia of Kupath Rabbi Meyer Baal HaNess.)^[24]  

To this day, the elders of Drohobycz mention the wedding of the Admor's only daughter in the Drohobycz court. For this purpose new shelters, “szałasy,” were erected in the yard and in the garden. Long wooden tables and twelve gates of honour, symbolizing the twelve tribes of Israel, were erected for the guests. Each gate was decorated with the tribe's flags and two mounted officers, each wearing a uniform and holding a sword, stood next to them. There were many singers, comedians, and musicians. The wedding ceremony took place on a huge empty lot. More than twenty thousand people gathered there. This wedding, which left a great impression on the whole area, was celebrated for over two weeks.

I was also privileged to be present at the seder at the Admor's house. The great hall where the seder was held was full to capacity with khasidim. The silver and gold utensils on the tables gleamed in the light of dozens of candles and chandeliers. The wine, the wine of the Israel, shone in its red color, like the red inside ancient goblets. The Admor, R' Chaimoni leaned to one side on the white sofa embroidered with blue, purple, and crimson wool. In his trembling right hand, he held his glass and his left hand caressed his long, light beard. He was silent for a moment, his blue eyes sailing through glittering gold glasses to unknown places. Suddenly, a stream of tears flowed along the lenses of his gold glasses and a voice, not his, burst from his throat in a whisper; it filled the whole space of the house and penetrated all hearts, “Next year in Jerusalem!” He repeated this verse three times successively, and I remember the feelings of love and fondness in his proclamation to Zion. It was a spiritual pleasure to look at him, elegant and handsome, with no stain on his garment.

When he emigrated to Israel in 5682, disembarked, and stepped on the country's soil, he fell to his knees, kissed the Holy Land, and burst into tears. He had integrated himself so much in the life of the settlement with everything in it, its light and shadows, joys and sorrows, until he became an organic part of it.

Editor's Footnotes

1. Rebbetzin: wife of a rabbi. Return
2. Israel Friedman of Ruzhyn (1797-1850) was a khasidic rabbi known as der heyliker Rizhiner (The holy one from Ruzhyn). Ruzhyn is a town currently in the Zhytomir Oblast in Ukraine. Return
3. Tzadik: (lit. righteous one) is a title given to people who are considered righteous. Return
4. Mogielnica is a town in Grójec County in the province of Masovia in Poland. Return
5. Kozhnitz is the name of a khasidic dynasty founded by the Kozhnitzer Maggid Rabbi Israel Hopsztajn. Kozhnitz is the Yiddish name for Kozienice, a town in the province of Mazovia in Poland. Return
6. Sadigura is a khasidic dynasty named for the city of Sadhora (Sadigura in Yiddish), in the former Austrian province of Bukovina, near the city of Chernivtsi. Return
7. Ruzhin-Sadigura has been one of the most influential dynasties in the history of the khassidic movement. Return
8. Stryi (Polish: Stryj) is a city located on the left bank of the river Stryi in Lviv Oblast of western Ukraine. Return
9. Hillel was a famous Jewish religious teacher who lived in Jerusalem during the time of King Herod, around the beginning of the Common Era. He is one of the most important religious figures in Jewish history, associated with both the Mishnah and the Talmud. Return
10. During the Austrian federal election on 11 June 1911, instances of attacks on property and people and other acts of violence in the morning of the election caused the Austrian authorities to summon military assistance. In the afternoon, when a report of shots being fired was received, the army fired into a crowd killing twenty-six people and wounding several others. The crowd and the victims were mixed, not only Jews. The former Deputy Mayor Jakob Feuerstein was blamed by his opponents. In the subsequent official investigation he was not found guilty. Return
11. Admor (pl. admorim) is a Hebrew acronym for Adonenu, Morenu Ve-Ravenu (our master, our teacher, and our rabbi), the title for a spiritual leader in the khasidic movement. Return
12. The settlement of Israel.. Return
13. The Mizrachi movement was founded in 1902 in Vilnius as a religious, Zionist organization. Return
14. Theodor Herzl (1860-1904) was an Austro-Hungarian journalist, playwright, political activist and writer who was the father of modern political Zionism. He founded the Zionist Organization and promoted Jewish emigration to Palestine in an effort to form a Jewish state. Return
15. Yishuv (lit, “settlement”) the Jewish population of Israel prior to establishment of the State in 1948. Return
16. Hibbat Zion (lit. Love of Zion) movement was a pre-Zionist, Jewish nationalist movement. Return
17. Laurence Oliphant (1829 – 1888), born in South Africa, was a member of the British Parliament, was an early proponent of creating a home for the Jewish people in Palestine. Although the author refers to him as a minister, he was a member of the British Parliament. Return
18. Khasidut: a movement within Judaism founded by the Baal Shem Tov in 1736 that emphasized prayer, joy, and kabbalah (Jewish mysticism). Return
19. Shkhunat HaBukharim (lit. The Bukharim Quarter) is a neighborhood in the center of Jerusalem that was established by Bukharan Jews in 1894. Return
20. Rabbi Chaim Meyer Yehiel Shapira (1789-1849), known as the Seraph of Mogielnica was one of the most prominent rabbis of Poland at the time. Return
21. Shalom Yosef Shapira (1904-1990), known by the pen name Shin Shalom, was an Israeli poet, author and translator. Return
22. A quorum of ten men required for a communal religious service. Return
23. Rabbi Moshe Schreiber, known as the Chatam Sofer ( lit. “Seal of the Scribe”), was the preeminent leader of Judaism in the Austro-Hungarian Empire during the first part of the 19th century. Return
24. Kollel: a charity organization founded in 1796 in Poland by the Torah leaders of European Jewry. It is named after Rabbi Meyer Baal HaNes (Rabbi Meyer the miracle maker), a Jewish sage who lived in the time of the Mishnah. Return

This article appears twice in the book. In Hebrew on pages 155-167 and in Yiddish on pages 207 to 224. This translation into English follows the Yiddish version. The Hebrew version contains some paragraphs that do not appear in the Yiddish version. Translations of these have been added to the text.

[Page 155 - Hebrew]^[1]

Introduction

Before the start of the second world war about 30,000 Jews lived in Drohobycz and Borysław (the eastern Poland oil region). In the outlying areas and in the Drohobycz region itself there were about 15,000 additional Jews. In total, about 45,000 Jewish citizens lived in the Drohobycz area. Three thousand Jews fled to Russia and survived. Eight hundred and sixty-five (865) survived in bunkers, forests and other hiding places. Forty- one thousand Jews were exterminated by the Germans who used the most cunning methods.

The Germans had the cruel laws, organizations and execution brigades to ensure capturing their victims. The Bronica forest (144 kilometers (about 90 miles) from Drohobycz) was the extermination site of 16,000 Jews. In the Borysław's Slaughter house, 8,000 people were murdered. In other temporary extermination sites, another 6,000 Jews were murdered. 12,000 were sent to their unusually cruel deaths in Belzec and Majdanek.

This is the statistical balance so to speak by those who survived in the oil region under the German occupation. In September 1943, the eastern part of Poland was declared as “Free of Jews” (Judenfrei). In Drohobycz and Borysław there were two labor camps where the Jews were actually without any protection. Other Jews that were found alive were also brought to these camps where they were put to work to produce equipment for the Germans. The labor Camps were established near the oil (petroleum) company, Karpaten Öl^[2] (formerly called “Beskiden Öl”). In 1944, the Jews who worked there were designated as “Herman Goring Werke”, and in reality, they were the Gestapo's prisoners.

The Gestapo supplied Karpathen Öl with Jewish laborers who wore the letters W (Wehrwirtschaft) or R (Rüstung)^[3].

The two sides agreed that every month a certain number of Jewish laborers (10%) will be handed over to the Gestapo to be murdered in the Bronica forest^[4].

This transfer of 2,600 prisoners caused “Aktions” every 7 – 8 weeks, capturing and murdering 500 – 600 prisoners in Bronica.

On March 23^rd, 1944, when the Russian army approached Tarnopol, all the “R” plants (Polmin^[5], Galicia and Nafta) were liquidated and transferred to the western areas of Poland (Jasło, Gorlice, Limanowa and Nowy Sącz). On the same day, 3,000 Russian prisoners were expelled from the Górka camp^[6] and were ordered to march west, although they were in a very poor physical condition and could barely walk. Many of them were shot the same day in Bronica. In the two “R” camps, the last declaration was issued (also called the “death declaration”) by the commander Obersturmführer Hildebrandt^[7] regarding a well-organized and safe evacuation of all the prisoners to Jasło.

Two weeks later, after two separate night Aktions, the Jewish prisoners were transported by trains after in the direction of Płaszów and from there to Mauthausen and other death camps in Austria. About 60 people who were weak or sick were shot on the spot, 15 Jews were shot during an escape attempt. A very small number successfully escaped and hid in bunkers around the Borysław forests.

Statistically, this is the blood-stained picture of the Jewish victims of the Borysław area.

[Page 207 - Yiddish]

July 3, 1941, a great day for Poles and Ukrainians

“The end has come for the Jews of Drohobycz and Borysław!”

With these bloodthirsty, murderous cries, Ukrainians and Poles with a lust for killing came out at eight o'clock in the evening on 30 June, as the German hordes invaded Drohobycz and Borysław.

Within about two hours, the Germans took over Truskawiec, Schodnica, Urycz, and other communities. In the early morning hours of 1 July 1941, Poles and Ukrainians, began to conduct a pogrom according to a precise plan that had been designed earlier. For three successive days, they murdered Jews. The victims were killed in the streets, in yards, or in homes – everywhere. The Germans watched the slaughter calmly. Those who tried to escape were detained by the Germans and given into the hands of the murderers. On this subject, there was a full agreement among the Germans, the Poles, and the Ukrainians.

During these three gruesome days, the rain poured incessantly, as if the skies were pouring their tears onto the earth because of what was happening!

For three days, innocent Jewish blood flowed. Nine hundred Jews were killed and 360 severely wounded in the pogrom that raged in Drohobycz, Borysław, and Schodnica. In Schodnica, they took the victims to a nearby forest. They had been chosen according to a list of names that had been prepared beforehand by the Poles and Ukrainians. There, they were told to undress and were shot. But before they were murdered, they were forced to dig their graves with their own hands.

The oil engineer Josef Bloch was among other well-known Jews of Schodnica in that mass murder. In the evening of the third day of the pogrom, at the end of the bloodshed, the Germans distributed a printed proclamation: “Anyone who kills or robs will be shot!”

When the German military marched in, economic life was paralyzed. Abandoned homes and stores were looted by the mob. All Jewish stores and some Russian ones were given to new owners or to those who proved to be helpful to the German in their occupation of the city. The Ukrainians were happy to demonstrate their hatred of Jews to the Germans in an aggressive, shameless manner. Without orders from the Germans, on their own initiative they blocked every escape for Jews. They were forbidden to leave their homes but were taken to forced, hard labour: cleaning the streets, and carrying heavy loads. They were tortured as they worked in the most horrific manner.

Along with the Germans, the Ukrainians conducted akcja (roundups) of annihilation against the Jews.

After seven weeks, the Gestapo arrived. They occupied the best, most beautiful homes. Just as they arrived, they killed two Jews who had assisted them in gaining possession of the homes.

[Page 208 - Yiddish]

In the claws of the Gestapo

With the arrival of the Gestapo in Drohobycz, the Jews were delivered into the hands of the Nazis. They were robbed of all rights and security. The systematic annihilation of the Jewish population began. A Ukrainian militia was set up in the city. There was also an exceptionally cruel unit, composed mainly of Viennese, who carried out the roundups and forced expulsions. Commandant Hetzel was the head of this unit. His assistant was the criminal, Azef Vetter, who excelled in his work. He would watch with insane pleasure as he incited his dog to rip pieces from his Jewish victims.

Among the cruelest murderers in this unit were Jarosz and Kubarik.^[8]

Drohobycz was the headquarters of the Gestapo responsible for Jewish matters in all the surrounding towns.

Under the directives of Gestapo headquarters, the extermination of the Jews of Drohobycz, Borysław, Stryj, Żydaczów, Bolechów, Sambor, and many smaller towns was carried out.

Jews were forbidden to go to public buildings, concerts, theaters, and cinemas. But these were minor restrictions. Radios, telephones, fur coats, jewels, and all valuables were confiscated. They were robbed of all rights and opportunities. Jews were forbidden to travel by train, use cars, or any other means of transportation.

The district commander Watermann^[9] issued a proclamation to the Jews through the Judenrat. At first, it partially limited Jewish life but actually affected all aspects of Jewish existence and survival. The proclamation was accompanied by a warning that the strictest means would be used against those who transgressed the prohibitions. This was the proclamation:

To the Jewish people of Drohobycz!

The Jewish Committee (Judenrat) is hereby ordered to follow all the orders and directives that the government office has printed regarding the Jewish population.

It is the responsibility of each Jewish citizen to follow the instructions proclaimed by the Jewish Committee.”

The German authorities then administered the following orders:

1. Armbands.
   From today, July 20 (the Hebrew article states the date as September 20^th) of this year, a band eight to ten centimeters wide must be worn on the right arm. There must be a Star of David in blue on the armband. The armbands must be clean and without any creases. The width cannot be any less than the above-mentioned size. Those who do not obey this will be punished.
2. Every Jewish citizen is obliged to follow all orders of the military or civilian authorities. He who attempts to flee or move when the order “stand still” is given will suffer severe punishment.
3. When meeting a German in uniform in the street, a Jew must move out of his way and remove his hands from his pockets.
4. Any contact between Jews and the German or local authorities is absolutely forbidden. All issues affecting the Jewish population will be handled by the appropriate authority, that is only by the representatives of the Judenrat.
5. Gatherings of more than three people in the street or marketplace are forbidden, as are young children running around.
6. It is forbidden to conduct any business without a permit.
1. Whoever wishes to conduct business must request a permit from the city administration through the intervention of the Judenrat (Department of Economy).

    

    

   A reception for former Drohobycz residents on their visit to Israelar

    

2. Trade or sale of any type of merchandise in the streets and places other than the designated marketplace by the bathhouse (the German police expelled all Jews from the community bathhouse) on Kraszewski Street is strictly forbidden.
3. It is forbidden to be at the marketplace – without a reason – other than in designated business times.
4. Jews are forbidden to sell tobacco, cigarettes, lighters, and other similar items.
5. It is forbidden to do business on Sundays or holidays, other than to sell milk.
6. It is forbidden to demand a higher price [than usual] for food items; even a bid is prohibited.
7. He who steals horses, animals, birds, or agricultural products will be found guilty of sabotage and given the death penalty. The same penalty will be placed upon anyone suspected of stealing other items.
8. The heads of households are required to maintain order and complete cleanliness in their yards, on their steps, in the streets, and around the houses. Those who do not observe these warnings will be given a harsh punishment.
9. The Jewish Security Personnel is responsible for carrying out the directives of the Judenrat. The members of the security personnel will receive the necessary identification papers. Anyone who does not obey the warnings and orders, will be severely punished.

The Judenrat of Drohobycz
Rosenthal, Chairman^[10]

Drohobycz, September 10, 1941
L.M. Secretary, Bernfeld

Confirmed by L.S. County Head, Area Commander in Drohobycz, City Commandant Waterman M.P.

Jews in the streets with the star of David on their arm were arrested and loaded onto cargo trucks in a cruel manner.

That is how, without any reason, they dragged Jews out of their homes in front of the eyes of the wicked Ukrainian crowds that snickered and cheered with joy and satisfaction. And with their help, Jews were taken to the Gestapo headquarters (on Mickiewicz Street). The captive Jews did not return home; for long hours they were bullied and painfully tortured. After that, they were herded into the forest, at first only at night, but later even in broad daylight. There they were executed, even though by that time they were barely breathing, hovering between life and death.

The Jews received no payment for their labor. Those who did the most difficult work received an extra portion of bread, an extra 200 grams. This same portion was given to the Jews who worked in the oil refineries and to those who plastered the roads. The portion was there for twenty-four hours. Women were also able to register as workers in order to save their lives. For four months there was no food given to the two large Jewish communities of Drohobycz and Borysław.

[Page 157 - Hebrew]

We cannot ignore the name of Felix Landau when describing the history of the Jews of Drohobycz during the German occupation. Felix Landau, who was born in Vienna, participated in the assassination of the Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss in 1934 and was imprisoned. From 1941-1943, he was in charge of the economic section of ISIPO^[11] and SD (Sicherheitsdienst)^[12]. His name is connected with the death and torture of thousands of people. For the Jews of Drohobycz and Borysław his name was a symbol of death and extermination.

On March 23, 1942, the Judenrat was given an order that 2,000 Jews were to be transferred in two days. The Judenrat in Borysław received the same order.^[13]

Initially, people really thought that the Jews were going to be transferred to different places. Under the forceful pressure of the Gestapo and mainly out of fear that they would be severely punished, members of the Judenrat were forced to follow through with the expulsion. Horrific scenes played out during these two days.

The Jews who were herded out by the Nazis were locked into the Sokol building^[14] on Mickiewicz Street.

[Page 210 - Yiddish]

The Nazis used the Jewish policemen. As tragic as this sounds, the result was that these Jews helped bring their fellow Jews to their place of death.

After two painful days they brought the victims in cargo trucks to the train station; from there they were taken in an unknown direction.

Three weeks later, their relatives received postcards with a stamp from Rawa Ruska^[15] that said that they were all doing well. Four months later, everyone knew that they had been taken to the gas chambers located in the town of Magierów;^[16] it was there they breathed out their final breaths. This was their tragic ending.

These horrific roundups took place between the 6 to 8 August 1942. (The Hebrew article states these dates to be 8^th to 17^th of August.)^[17] In all the occupied countries of Europe, the Nazis designated the terms for implementing the roundups. Their goal was to bring half a million people to the gas chambers of Majdanek, Auschwitz, and Bełżec.

In this roundup, designated as being necessary for higher goals, they transported 3,000 Jews from Drohobycz, 4,000 from Borysław and the nearby areas. Ukrainian and German police collaborated in this roundup.

They dragged victims from their homes and hiding places. Their rubber batons and steel rods worked ceaselessly. They split open heads and broke the hands and feet of those put up the smallest resistance. Blood poured from these victims; their limbs and bodies were covered in it.

Once again, rain poured from the sky as if God himself was crying … but the mad beasts roared wildly with joy and pleasure.

At the end of Skotnicka Street, one of the murderers threw a child from the second floor of a building.

“Hurry, Hurry!” shouted the chief.

Here and there, you saw houses burning. Tongues of flames lit up the sky, the yards, and the surrounding places. In the glow of the fire, you saw horrific pictures. The cries and moans of the victims were louder than the curses and wild, insulting shouts of the thugs.

With wild glee, a Gestapo officer was holding a handful of hair which he had ripped out of the head of a young woman as she was trying to save her child. With drunken, wanton laughter, the thugs around him helped.

Cargo trucks, fully loaded, were leaving in various directions. They were taking Jews like cattle to the slaughter; that is how they were taken to the concentration camps.

One picture has remained in my memory as a symbol: a woman, whose child had been seized, suddenly ran out from the crowded masses prepared for transport. She ran after her little girl and mightily pushed away one of the Nazi criminals … Understandably, she and her child went right to their deaths … Two innocent, childish blue eyes, looked around in confusion and shock at the incomprehensible, insane surrounding. On the mother's face there was the readiness and determination to defend the small creature, the little girl, innocent of all sin. In her tragic smile, there was the expression of indestructible strength to guard the life of her child and to sacrifice herself for her little girl …

The slaughter lasted for three days and two nights; a rumor spread that it ended with success.

Reports were sent via telephone to Dr Frank^[18], Dr Wächter^[19], and General Katzmann^[20] in Lemberg.

Three thousand “items.” They had captured 2,400 alive and 600 were shot on the spot. The roundup was successful.

After the killing of 8,000 Jews in the Drohobycz region in August 1942, the ghetto was established according to the orders of the Kreiskommandant [regional commandant] Jeromczyk,

[Page 211 - Yiddish]

… and from his successor Dr Gergeras,^[21] with the collaboration of the murderer, the Nazi General Hanke.^[22]

The Jews were ordered to move into the ghetto by October 1, 1942. The area of the ghetto was defined by the following seven streets: Czatzki, Kowalska, Gabarska, Kraszewski, Ribia, Skotnicka, Lan, and part of Szienkiewicz Street. At the time that the ghetto was being set up, 9,000 Jews still lived in Drohobycz, and 1,000 Jews had been brought from the surrounding villages. The intention was clear: to concentrate the Jews in the two ghettoes in Drohobycz and Borysław so that it would be much easier to destroy them.

To organize the ghettos, the Judenrat received significant help from the experienced hand of Landau, the military commander. He made it easier to bring Jews into the ghettos. According to his instructions, his people first looted everything from the Jews. Of the remainder of their possessions, Jews were permitted to take no more than 50 kilos. These were also stolen by the German murderers. Then, they became very generous. Things of lesser value were tossed out the doors in case their “dear” friends would be able to use them.

Landau rushed around very busily, holding in one hand a rubber club and in the other a revolver. He directed things like an experienced conductor. He issued orders, demanded, and coerced for faster and better completion of his orders.

The move into the ghetto cost 100 Jews their lives. Some were shot, some died of hunger, others could not withstand the pain and took their own lives.

Two or three families now lived in one small room under the worst sanitary conditions. Whoever visited the ghettos might have thought that how they appeared from the outside was not bad. Everything was organized and conducted routinely and precisely.

But that impression soon disappeared; a darkness embraced the visitor when he read the poster at the entrance: “Aryans are forbidden to enter the ghetto and Jews are forbidden to leave the ghetto. He who disobeys these orders will receive the death penalty.” And still, no one even thought these places of “residence” would soon become cemeteries for Jews, that on these narrow and filthy streets there would be rivers of blood from pure, innocent people, who had committed no sin …

They had not even completed organizing ghetto life when a new roundup took place, on the 23-24 October, that is three weeks after the Gestapo formally announced that there would be no further roundups. Once again, they rounded up 2,300 to be sent to Bełżec. Of those, 180 people who were sick in the hospital were cruelly shot, since they could not be transported.

Two days after holding the Jews at the gathering point, the Gestapo, with the help of the Ukrainian police, brought the victims to the train station, packed them into the cargo cars, connected them to the train that was going to Borysław, and there added more cars with Jews from the surrounding areas. That's how they brought 5,800 Jews to the gas chambers in Bełżec.

[Page 159 - Hebrew]

Now there was more space in the two ghettos. There was an option for more “living space”. That was a sneaky promise by Landau, Dang, Gunter, Gabriel and others that no more roundups would be conducted. This was supposed to encourage the remaining people to work more efficiently for the “Thousand Year Kingdom”. “The leader has promised and you will see that this time he really means it.” That is how the Gestapo talked in the first days of the organization of the ghetto, and that is how they managed to get more of the Jews' possessions.

The remaining 5,000 Jews, downtrodden and filled with pain, continued to live in fear and anguish. Fifteen hundred Jews died of hunger; confusion and depression led others to suicide. (Dr Landsman and his wife and children.)

In the ghetto, they began to mumble and secretly whisper about an armed resistance, even though there was no means to accomplish this. Whoever had financial means and a strong will escaped to the forest and built bunkers. Those who had neither financial means, strength, nor energy hoped for a miracle and prayed to God for mercy.

The scope, means and methods of the roundups of 23-24 October 1942

[Page 212 - Yiddish]

revealed the true goal of the Nazis: the total annihilation of European Jewry. The plan for the roundups was worked out on Hitler's personal orders and was carried out in all the countries captured by the Germans at the same time.

There was no end to the depression and chaos in the death-filled ghettos. Everyday. the Gestapo captured Jews who tried to escape and returned them to the ghetto. They did not punish them to show that Jews had nothing to fear, that they could remain calm in the city and continue working. But the Jews no longer believed these words or reassurances. They knew the Germans too well … Many escaped deep into the forests around Borysław.

In the ghetto, the Jews dug underground hiding places. They “sold themselves” to the Aryans and in that way obtained [identity] papers. Some managed to escape to the Hungarian border. In short, they did everything possible (at least that is what they thought) under those conditions, because to remain in the ghetto meant a certain death.

A mania of terror and panic reigned in all the camps and ghettos in Poland. But there were also Jews who hoped that 1943 would bring freedom and liberation. Maybe the partisans would appear suddenly to rescue them? But despite their hopes came the bitter truth. More Jews tried to flee. The order came for total annihilation. To carry this out, the Germans followed the order completely.

For almost the entire month, men from the SS and the Gestapo under the command of the executioner Block^[23] (from Vienna) stormed savagely everywhere, terrorizing the Judenrat. They forced the Judenrat to collect 100 Jews daily and bring them to the synagogue on Garbarska Street. They threatened that if the order was not obeyed, even for one day, the Gestapo would double the number. The Gestapo would then collect the ever-increasing numbers of these people and exterminate them quickly.

That is how Jews were forced by other Jews to be brought to the synagogue, where their fathers, mothers, brothers and sisters had gathered before they were murdered. This had also been done earlier on 25 March 1942, but at that time they did not yet know that “relocation” really meant going to their deaths. Now, everyone knew what relocation meant: first their families, then they themselves. There was no escape, no rescue. It was total annihilation.

The next paragraph is in the Hebrew text, but not in the Yiddish text [page 159 – Hebrew]; Translated by Susan Rosin

After nine days, the first group was brought to the train station and from there to the gas chambers in Bełzeć.

Until 11 November things seemed to be quiet in the ghetto. Then the Jewish pharmacist Reiner obtained a weapon and attacked a member of the Gestapo and tried to kill him. This incident caused a bloody revenge on Thursday, 12 November 1942.^[24] A special Aktion” was quickly organized at eight o'clock in the morning. Any passing Jew was shot. The bloodthirsty Germans walked the streets with their guns smoking. Jews who were going to their daily jobs were told, “Jew, turn around.” Then they were shot. On that day 186 people died.

There was only one official organization whose objective was to provide social protection and assistance.^[25] Based in Kraków, it was under the direction of Dr Michał Weichert.^[26] Of course, the organization's money came from foreign countries. The Germans stole as much as they could from it. The most important public servants of the Jewish community worked in this social aid division. Dr Leon Tennenbaum, the former chairman of the community administration, President of the Zionist Organization, and (former) Vice-Mayor of the Drohobycz City Council. Dr Hausman, owner of an oil refinery in Drohobycz, assisted with immeasurable devotion.

Their work was difficult; they had great responsibilities. Each day, they took care of the lonely, those in pain, and the Jews in the ghetto who were hungry or suffering. But opportunities to help were minimal. They sat in an office on Szkolna Street for long, full days, desperate and helpless, facing the needs and severe deprivations in the ghetto. In every Aktion there was always the danger of transfer with only one result – Bełżec or Bronica.^[27]

Gestapo Commander Block ordered that an accurate monthly account of the distribution of support given to the Jewish population in Drohobycz be provided. He needed to send this account

[Page 213]

to the General-Governor in Kraków.^[28]

These reports were supplemented and “improved” by the “honourable” Governor Frank himself so that they would present the matter in a favourable light. Thus, in his reports which later appeared in the foreign press, it appeared that the Germans sent large amounts of money to Poland to support impoverished Polish Jews so that they could survive the difficult times during the “humane” war.

The activity of the social aid organization lasted until March 1943, after which it was disbanded and its employees “transferred” to Bronica.

Then, the burden of social assistance fell to the social department of the Judenrat. Every day, it received two kilos of bread to divide up among 2,000 Jews who were waiting for it. Each day, they distributed fifty to sixty certificates for those who were ill so that they might be admitted to the hospital and daily, twenty-five death certificates were issued. Every day, they were obliged to present a report to the Gestapo of how many Jews were left and what type of help they needed.

At this time, Block was promoted to a higher position and he swore that he would make the Drohobycz region Judenrein (cleansed of Jews). He kept his promise. After he made this oath publicly, the mood in the ghetto was crushed even further. The representatives of the Judenrat Dr Rosenblatt and his assistant Dr Ruhrberg suddenly disappeared, leaving the ghetto to its own fate. The disappearance of these two doctors caused great panic. It was clear to everyone that the final, total liquidation of Jews was approaching and that their fate was sealed. Anyone who could escape tried to do so.

A few good Gentile friends tried to convince them to flee but all they did was give advice. None of them actually did anything that would have been helpful.

The Gestapo constantly circulated through the ghetto. They smiled, remained silent, and deflected the rumours about the Aktion. There were still 3,000 Jews in the ghetto. The situation continued like that until the bitter day of 15 February 1943.

The fifteenth of February 1943 was a Tuesday. On the day before, you could sense that something was happening on the Russian front. Rumours were circulating that the German army had suffered a great defeat. On that day, the people were not taken to work as usual. A strict order was given that the gates of the ghetto be guarded.

In the morning hours, around ten o'clock, Ukrainian police arrived, apparently to supervise the cleaning of the streets. Sometime later, twenty-five Gestapo men stormed in along with 100 SS police. They quickly took positions at the ends of each street. Soon you could see the first victims. People were forced from their homes. The members of the Judenrat were the first to go. People were beaten with clubs and the butts of guns as they were quickly loaded on cargo trucks which left at great speed through the main streets in the direction of Sambor. Two armed tanks followed the trucks. Fourteen cargo trucks carried the 450 Jews who had been rounded up within two hours.

They were taken to Bronica. There they were lined up before a wild mob which laughed and sang wildly with pleasure as they were murdered!

From the morning on, in a green meadow near the forest which spread out along the side of the city, you could see an unusual sight.

It was a freezing winter day. A cold wind blew and embraced the naked human bodies. At a short distance away were the Gestapo and SS police, who were preparing to shoot. They ordered the naked crowd, paralyzed with fear and deathly anxiety, to approach the mass grave. The grave had been dug with precise measurements,

[Page 214]

100 metres long, ten metres wide, and one metre deep. Lips uttered quiet prayers. The tortured, doomed Jews waited for death to come quickly to release them from their anguish. This was their final prayer. But it seemed it was still too early. God did not want that yet.

An order was issued, that women had to be first in line. The first woman stepped out of the group with a bitter, sarcastic smile on her face. It seemed that she was the bravest. After her, came the second, then the third …

The modern, automatic weapons began to speak their own language. The first woman fell directly into the mass grave and after her, another 218 women! The fortunate ones were hit and died on the spot. Others did not meet death quickly but were wounded and died with great suffering. Commander Block, who had organized the Aktion, ordered that bullets would not be wasted. One bullet in the back of the neck was enough!

In that horrific manner, 450 souls were murdered. Then the weapons were quiet; the heavens were also quiet. And once again, the murderers demonstrated their victory throughout Europe over helpless Jews …

In an attempt to save Jews in Drohobycz, the Judenrat wanted to create workshops for young, skilled workers to produce items that the Germans might want. Dr Ruhrberg, the vice-chairman of the Judenrat, was able to influence the mayor of Drohobycz Dr Kostrzemski,^[29] who personally presented this notion to the German government.^[30]

The workshops operated in many areas of industry. Many handicrafts were done there. Women of the SS ordered varieties of beautiful handicrafts according to specific styles and models, and woe to the Jewish worker who did not carry out the order according to demand. Those Jewish workers were soon murdered in the next Aktion.

The workshops always suffered from shortages of material. Permission from the municipal administration was needed to acquire the material they needed, but as time went on the distribution of material diminished. This was done intentionally so that the workshops might be shut down the as quickly as possible and the workers sent to death. For their part, the Jewish workers did everything possible to sustain the workshops, even though the SS did not desist from pushing forward with liquidation.

For a period of time, when the Aktions were raging in the ghetto, those in the workshops were considered untouchable. But they soon lost their protection as well, and Jewish workers who produced beautiful items with minimal means were assigned to more mundane work. In later Aktions they suffered the fate of the Jews in the Drohobycz ghetto. When the number of workers in a workshop reached a minimum, the workshops were liquidated on 21 July 1943. Those who had worked so diligently for the German economy were loaded onto cargo trucks, with beatings and shouting, and taken on their final journey to Bronica.

It is difficult to calculate the exact number of articles produced in those workshops, but many reached a large and perfect final product. It was known that 2,000 tables were made, 1,500 pairs of fancy slippers, 5,000 metres of white linen, 2,500 picture frames. The city council ordered much of the work that was produced, such as knitted goods, sweaters, and household items. These works could be found in Austrian households to which the SS sent as gifts.

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The Agricultural Camp in Hyrawka

The German army in Drohobycz allowed Jews to work. Thanks to the efforts of agricultural engineer Backenroth,^[31] an expert in farming, who was respected by the police authorities in the city, an agricultural labour camp was established in Hyrawka, one of the suburbs about three kilometres from the city center.

About 250 young men and women worked there. Later, the engineer was able to establish a second agriculture farm where all workers were Jews. He also employed Jews from the surrounding areas. They raised fifty rabbits, planted various vegetables, and even medicinal plants. Five months after these camps were established, the Nazis demanded that their meals include only products from the Hyrawka camp.

Over 1,000 chickens were also raised in the camp. The Jewish workers raised the chickens in order to stuff the murderers with them. Every day, Jewish workers had to present their products to the Nazis in their homes under guard, and woe to the Jew who delayed in bringing a chicken. Immediately he would lose the right to wear the armband with “WW” [Wehrwirtschaft: military economy] – and would be killed at the next Aktion.

The camp workers and those who worked in the municipal workshops, also wore the armbands with the “WW” insignia, which was a protection from persecution and Aktions. But they were protected only as long as they were useful. After nine months of working in labour camps, the Jews were taken to Bronica.

In the report of the economy department at the Karpathen Öl Aktiengesellschaft, a famous oil company,^[32] which managed the camp until its liquidation, one can find interesting numbers about the types of products that the Hyrawka camp produced from the month of December 1942, until December 1943.

During this time, the camp produced the following products: 4,000 kilos of cucumbers, 2,200 kilos of tomatoes, 500 kilos of radishes, 400 kilos of onions, 200 kilos of parsley and cabbage, 15,000 litres of milk, 700 kilos of butter, and other vegetables.

In the first three Aktions in Drohobycz, mainly women and children were killed. A few men remained, mainly those who were able to work. The Nazi thugs just moved them around (in order to confuse them even more) from one workplace to another.

According to all the signs, it seemed that the war would not end so quickly. They had to “organize” Jewish life once again. The number of inhabitants in the ghetto was now no more than 3,500. Then a new workshop was established on Garnczarska Street. SS commander Minkus^[33] set it up. Each of the murderers looked for a way to steal whatever he could from the Jews. So, for that reason, all kinds of workshops were established. These workshops existed only for a short time.

During 1943, the Nazi bandits stole all the possessions of the murdered Jews. From the beginning, the murderers planned to stuff their pockets with stolen Jewish goods.

There were workshops for making shoes and sewing clothing, with separate departments for the wives of the murderers for hairdressing and manicure and pedicure services. All the valuables and treasured possessions of the Jews who worked in the various camps were kept in a large stockroom until they were taken to their deaths. After each transport to Bronica, the camps were filled with household and valuable items of those who were transported, since they were forced to leave behind the possessions which they had amassed over the years.

Many Jews worked to sort these items

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in the stockroom. Under the watchful eye of the SS, they sorted clothing, shoes, and valuable items according to their number and size, value, and condition. All money, either banknotes or coins, had to be given over immediately to the SS. If not, the penalty was death. Large, packed boxes and baggage which the Jewish workers had brought, dragging them to the railway stations, flowed from these stockrooms, mainly to Austria.

In the workshops, the Jews were forced to get raw material for the products they made. This had to be worked out according to the terms given, under the warning of otherwise being shot. Thus, Dengg, the commander of the unit, ordered a shoemaker to make him a luxurious pair of boots in eight hours. Seven hours later, the poor shoemaker, pleased with his effort, brought the requested boots to the detestable Nazi. As an expression of gratitude, he was hit over the head with a rider's whip; he fell unconscious on the ground, drowning in blood.

Twice a day, the Nazis allowed themselves to be shaved by Jewish barbers, whom they mocked and insulted. They continually required that the Jews carry out impossible work. Under the threat of death and torture these impossible tasks were made possible.

While the workshops existed, they produced the following articles: 540 pairs of boots, 2,000 pairs of shoes (for men, women, and children), 3,000 repaired pairs of shoes, 900 suits, and the same number of shirts and linens.

The commander thanked the Jews who worked in the workshops by personally escorting them to Bronica. He himself murdered the first twenty precious, pure souls with his impure hands. The Jewish supervisor in the workshop (the position was guaranteed by a law) was Weintraub, an engineer. His position was as that of a “kapo.” He followed orders exactly and tried to find grace in the eyes of the Nazis.^[34]

Believing that they were the victors in the occupied lands and with the pressure to lock the countries into the thousand-year-old empire, the Nazis started to erect new buildings. In the Górka area, there was a large brickyard. The SS looked for forced labour to go there.

Once again, the Jews were happy to find a place of work to avoid what awaited them. During the Aktion of October 1942, 1,200 Jews from the area were in the camp, which was surrounded by a military guard with machine guns. During the first week of operation, the first Aktions had already occurred.

Not far from the brick furnace, about a kilometre to the north, there was a large prisoner-of-war camp with 20,000 Russian soldiers. Daily shootings were heard from this camp. Later, it became known that “selections” were made in the camp daily, when 150 to 200 prisoners were shot.

The Nazi activities in that camp served as an example for the SS in the Górka forced labour camp, so that they should not – heaven forbid – stagnate but continue on their path of murdering Jewish workers. In the months when there were no Aktions they killed fifty people in the camp.

Production in the brick factory dropped, because in reality, the goal of this camp was to exterminate the small number of remaining Jews there. They did this in the same manner and according to the example of the camp in Lemberg on Janowska Street. In both camps, they shot at the Jewish workers from the watch towers for no reason at all.

Hertzer,^[35] the commander of the camp, quietly gave out orders about whom to kill and the Ukrainian police made sure that these orders were carried out exactly. In March 1943, 800 Jews were removed from the camp to be transferred over to Gródek Jagielloński. Hertzer personally oversaw this transport. When this transport was two kilometres before the train station,

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the Jews were dragged out of the trains and taken into the nearby forest. All of them were murdered there. The majority of the victims were from Borysław and the surrounding areas.

These camps, which existed only for a short time, served as means of concentrating the remaining Jews in the area to facilitate their extermination. And soon, on 21 May 1943 the signal to totally exterminate and liquidate the camp was given.

With the establishment of the camp in Drohobycz and a similar camp in Borysław, there were assurances that those Jews who were still alive would not be persecuted or killed. Here, there were specialists and craftsmen who could save their lives if they tried their best to do their work. It seemed that Göring himself assumed this responsibility; he convinced the Führer himself to allow them to live. All the prisoners in the camps in Drohobycz and Borysław received a badge from the Gestapo marked with the letter “R” and a special number. They entered the list of names of hostage workers in Karpathen Öl. There was an agreement between the Gestapo and the staff of the oil company in Berlin regarding the required percentage of Jews that had to be killed. The Jewish slave labourers, who were already the last remaining Jews in Poland, were spread out through the various plants. Only men remained, their wives and children have already been murdered. Only very few could save their families by hiding them with Aryan families.

Jews worked in the following areas: in the oil refinery Galicia there were twelve engineers, seventy clerks, 1,200 labourers, and about 200 women in the housekeeping department. In the oil refinery Polmin there were seven engineers, fifteen clerks, forty-five labourers, and eight women in the kitchen, which was only for Jews. In the Nafta plant, whose activities were almost paralyzed, there were three engineers in the laboratory, nine clerks, and fifty to sixty temporary workers.

The forced labour camps were set up in two sections: one part, enclosed in barbed wire, was quartered in Borysławska Street 6. The second section was housed along the length of Jagiellońska and Garnkarska streets. All communication and connection to the city was cut off. The camp was guarded on all sides and the entire world was able to be convinced that there were still Jews existing under German rule and that they were alive and working.

Two supervisors were chosen to keep an eye on the camps. The Borysławska street camp was overseen by Baumgarten, and the Jagiellońska and Garnkarska streets camp was overseen by Weintraub. These slave labour camps were under commander Hildebrand^[36] and his assistant Minkus.

In these camps, there were laboratories, clinics, pharmacies, a modern kitchen, in short – everything that was necessary for people's existence. There were fifteen doctors in the two camps. They could move around somewhat freely. They even had permission to go to the city for home visits. All the SS were taken care of by Jewish doctors. The SS stated many times that they had full confidence in the Jewish doctors.

At first, the food in the camps was not too bad. They formed lines to go to work under the armed guard of Ukrainian police. Each day, before and after work, the workers were permitted to submit accusations and appeals. After a few months, people actually thought that Göring would keep his promise, but in September 1943, a bitter surprise came when an Aktion took place and the workers who wore the privileged “R” letter were taken.

In the Hebrew text only:

The most cruel supervisors were in the Galicia refinery. Krause^[37] and Rindfuss^[38] cooperated fully with the Gestapo regarding all Jewish matters.

The last remaining Jews – engineers, bookkeepers, drilling experts, chemists, and

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trained artisans continued to work, continued with their painful, hopeless lives, doing whatever they could in order to arouse sympathy in Berlin. But all for nothing!

In the Hebrew text only:

In January 1944, an Aktion was secretly planned and executed in the camps and the refineries. Eight hundred prisoners were led to Bronica and murdered there.

Jews, who had the “R” designation began to flee in masses. By whatever means possible they managed to get out of the camps and run wherever their eyes led them. They could not think about an armed resistance. Ukrainians and Polish fascists lurked behind the wall of the camp; anyone who even thought about escaping from the camp was immediately given over into the hands of the Gestapo.

Nine kilometres south of Drohobycz is Truskawiec, a famous spa. Its healing springs and modern bathing facilities were well known beyond the borders of Poland. In 1939, at the outbreak of the war, 150 Jewish families lived there, a total of 400 people. With their hard work, ability, and years of experience in the local economy, they contributed much to the reputation of this special place. They also lived comfortably with their Ukrainian and Polish neighbors. The Germans knew about this and decided to transfer the sanatoria into their ownership. At that time, German generals, high government officials, and party activists lived there.

With slow but certain steps, the Nazis began to implement changes in the places the Jews owned, to chase them out of their positions, and replace them with Ukrainians and Volksdeutche (ethnic Germans living outside of Germany.) For a long period of time, there were no Aktions in Truskawiec. Life for the Jews slowly calmed down, although everyone felt that a nightmare was approaching.

One day, this is what happened: Kraus, the oldest member of the Judenrat, needed to extend his travel permit. To do this, he had to go to the regional headquarters located in Drohobycz.

The regional commander, Dr Görgens, the successor of Jedamzik, banged his finger on his forehead and shouted:

“You accursed dogs! You're still living in Truskawiec? For heaven's sake! How could I ever forget about you, as if you never would have been in this world!”

And after a few minutes of thought, he gave Kraus the travel permit and said he should send him an exact report about the activities of the Jews in Truskawiec.

Kraus, who never even thought about something suspicious, went home to put together the required report.

That same day, 23 August 1943, at two in the afternoon, the regional commander Görgens arrived, accompanied by two SS men, who did not belong to the police department of Drohobycz. He called on Kraus to give him his report.

But it was impossible for him to have prepared what the commander demanded within an hour. That was enough to punish Kraus. He was arrested and put under guard. After two hours, he was once again brought before Dr Görgens who told him that he should assemble all the Jews within an hour and that they should bring with them up to fifty kilos of their belongings. All the Jews were to gather in front of the synagogue because the Turkish government was prepared to take them to their country. That day they were to go to the train station from where they would go to Turkey.

Kraus and two other Jews from the local Judenrat organized the gathering of the Jewish residents of Truskawiec as the cunning commander had instructed. But at the same time, four trucks with Gestapo staff ready to act, rushed in from Drohobycz.

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Less than ten minutes had passed and Kraus was the first to be taken into the forest and shot. In that same Aktion, Dr Ruhdörfer, much beloved by everyone, was also killed with his entire family. The echoes of the murderers carried across the beautiful resort town. In the two hours of the nationalist-socialist operation they rounded up 320 Jewish men, women, and children and brought them into the yard of the synagogue. Inside the holy place, there was already a fire burning which had destroyed all the holy books and holy objects. Soon, on the stoop, they shot the first five Jews. A short while later, Dr Görgens arrived and ordered that some of the Jews, who were scared to death, should be lined up to the right. Then he whispered something to one of the helpers. It was Landau, who was already well known to us from the previous Aktions.

He took the Jews from the right and put them all into cargo trucks; then they left in the direction of the forest close to the resort town. Soon automatic machine gun shooting was heard. At the same time, the other three cargo trucks, loaded with people and their bundles, were going in the direction of Drohobycz. They were lucky to live for another few hours until they were brought to Bronica, where they were killed.

At four in the afternoon, Dr Görgens sat with his family circle for afternoon tea. He was having a fine time, eating, drinking, and sleeping calmly …

The Employment Agency Office in Drohobycz had three departments. The main one, was in the orphanage on Sobieski Street, one of the most beautiful buildings in this industrial town. The second office, a branch of the main office, was situated in Borysław. These two agencies had to provide work to the Jews in Drohobycz and Borysław. The other agency offices in the region were branches of the central office in Drohobycz.

The goal of these offices was to register healthy and capable Jews to find work for them according to their skills. The director of the central office was a man by the name of Bräunlich,^[39] a good friend and an assistant to the Nazi officer Meinke,^[40] a Hitlerist who excelled in cruelty. But his deputy Güldner,^[41] was an idealist, and his principles were humanitarian, and even socialist. He helped Jews as much as he could. The behavior of the Nazis in their acts toward the Jews, was contrary to his own. Although, for appearance's sake, he forced himself to participate in their demonic acts, at least in theory.

In secret, he built a bunker in his own yard, and hid twenty Jews there. But it was discovered, and he secretly left town in order not to suffer the same fate as the Jews who had hid in his bunker.

As mentioned before, Bräunlich, the director of the central employment service, was the opposite of him. He was the symbol of Nazi cruelty and murder. For his own needs, he used Jewish craftsmen and capable workers. He would beat them mercilessly and later give them over into the Gestapo hands for additional treatment.

We have to record at least one event that involved him. He ordered Berthold Schenkelbach, an artistic photographer, to take a life-sized portrait of him and also an enlargement of one of his photos. As usual, he gave Schenkelbach a very limited time to do it and also, again as usual, the order was accompanied with threats of the death penalty if the final product did not meet his demands.

Frightened for his and his family's fate, Schenkelbach worked day and night. He completed the order in time and left for the murderer's house with the product.

Then Bräunlich asked what he should pay for the job. Schenkelbach, understandably, did not ask for a single penny.

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He only muttered, “As the Herr director understands, or as the Herr director thinks is right.”

In response Bräunlich asked him to turn around and remain still. He did not shoot him, but threw a loaf of bread onto the picture with a fury, hitting the Jew who fell down. Blood was running down his head. He also gave him a few hard kicks with his feet and told his servant to throw the Jew out.

Two weeks later during the October Aktion, Bräunlich himself brought the artist Schenkelbach to the death truck along with his wife and two children. The children managed to escape from the assembly place, but their parents were brought to Bełżec.

Until 30 May 1943, six forced labour camps remained active. There were still 3,500 Jews living in the ghetto. There were also 2,500 Jews working in Karpathen Öl company and 2,300 Jews in the Ordnungdienst (Jewish Ghetto Police), for a total of about 8,300 Jews. They were exhausted, helpless, totally drained, without protection, and without hope for survival.

On 19 April, the remaining Jews in the Warsaw ghetto, were fighting heroically. A rumour spread that the Germans would take revenge for the uprising. There were some sympathetic Aryans who positioned themselves behind the gates of the ghetto to warn those inside.

In all the camps and ghettos, wherever the Jews were, there was a terrible panic. Women and young children ran, as if condemned, from one end of the camp to another. And when the SS security and the Ukrainian police confirmed the rumours that the Germans were going to take revenge on the remaining Jews, the crowd at the gate became so great that the last ghetto inhabitants broke down the gate and fled. The guards remained standing, powerless. They didn't even attempt to shoot. They behaved as if they were unsettled and felt a sympathy to those unfortunates. But those same people who were seen outside the ghetto, were later seen inside again. They were nabbed by the Ukrainian vultures and hooligans who chased the Jews back into the ghetto.

That same evening at six o'clock, twenty-five cargo trucks arrived from Lwów and Stanisławów, with Gestapo members and Schutzpolizei (protection police). It was known that the members of the execution commando from Stanisławów were the most-cruel unit. They cast the fear of death in all the Jews in eastern Poland. On 21 September 1941, the murderers of this commando killed 13,000 Jews in one night in Stanisławów.

At all the street exits there was the strong presence of security police. They guarded the entire area twenty-four hours a day. The Aryan population was given an order not to leave their homes. It was yet to be known what would happen in the night hours.

And this is how it was. At two o'clock at night (on 21 May), the machine gun shooting was heard incessantly. Horrific mass murders were seen. A slaughter began. Heartrending screams carried through the ghetto; they split the silence of the night and their echo resonated into the dark and the distance.

But the SS reassured the entire city that those Jews who had the letters “W” and “R” would not be harmed. They said they were forced, to their regret, to carry out the operation in the ghetto at this time, because it was a decision from higher-up to liquidate all the ghettos in Europe at the same time. But the camps would continue to exist. The camp inhabitants would be able to continue their work until the storm of the war passed. That was the so-called final order of the Führer himself.

In the early hours of dawn, the first line of cargo trucks, packed with human victims, drove in the direction of Bronica. Around an hour later, they returned with the bundles

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and possessions of those murdered and took them all to the storerooms of the Karpathen Öl Company, where they were immediately sorted. At nine in the morning, it was already clear to everyone that the Aktion would continue. It would last until they eliminated the last Jew.

A “free-for-all” for Jews were proclaimed and the Aryan population was encouraged (through publicity in the streets) to capture Jews, who tried to flee, and deliver them to the Gestapo. If a Jew resisted, the Aryan had the right to pass judgement, meaning he could exterminate him as quickly as possible.

Everyday life in the camps was not disrupted. Jews were taken to work as slaves under strict watch. They dared not utter a word.

The cargo trucks ran day and night. Fires were seen from some parts of the ghetto. In open places in the city, the Nazis set up loud-speakers in order to drown out the Jews' screams when taken to their extermination, so this would not disturb the Aryans.

Aryans, particularly Ukrainians, went into the streets to watch what was happening, and enjoy the resonating music … When the death wagons drove by, they cheered the Nazi escorts. Each transport was followed by an armed car.

On 30 May, the ghetto was empty. Here and there some houses were still burning. The Gestapo patrolled the streets, along with Ukrainians and Jews from the Ordnungdienst (security service). These Jews were threatened with outright extermination if they did not assist in finding hidden Jews. Completely emptying out the ghetto continued until 10 July 1943. About a month earlier, on 6 June, at six in the evening, the Jews of the security service were summoned and set out in rows of two in front of the house where the Judenrat had been. (Their families had been killed an hour earlier in Bronica.)

A few minutes later, the commander of the SiPo (security police) with his military power appeared. Right after them came twelve, armed Gestapo men with automatic weapons, twenty-four Ukrainian policemen, and five machine guns.

A command was heard.

Turn right! To the cemetery! March!

And that's how the Jewish security service received its reward. These twenty-eight young men who, under the pressure of the Gestapo for three years, had carried an inhumane burden, an immoral and anti-Semitic one, now paid with their own lives for this service

In the cemetery, they were set out in two rows, one row standing, the other row kneeling. The SiPo commander loudly proclaimed the verdict,

“In the name of the Fuhrer! For the sins of Communist activity and for readiness to go against the German Reich, each of the men of the security service is sentenced to death by hanging. But since you worked in a special organization in the department of military discipline, as good servants for a significant amount of time, hanging will be changed to shooting!

When the ghetto was emptied, all the Aryan people were allowed to enter. Masses moved in to take anything of value. They searched and dug in all the holes. During their search they managed to find another 100 Jews and deliver them to the Gestapo. But those unfortunates were no longer people; they were emaciated skeletons who already stood at the threshold of death.

With the help of the extermination commando group (Judenvernichtungskommando), killing the rest of the Jews happened fiercely once again. A rumour began to circulate that the regional commander (Görgens) had gone to Lwów to get new orders.

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The hearts of Jews beat with the fear that this would now be the turn of those in the camps. In particular, they began to see real danger for the camps with announcements in the Lemberger Zeitung that General Governor Frank was planning a visit to the oil region, but only on the condition that the region would be cleansed of Jews.^[42] It did not take long for the rumour to be proved correct. On 10 June 1943, according to the aforementioned continuing Aktions, a reinforced patrol of Gestapo and Ukrainian military suddenly appeared in the city's labour camps in the afternoon hours.

All the Jews were dragged out and brought to the courtyard of the courthouse building. At the same time, all the Jews, who worked in the oil refinery in Znieszienie near Lwów and wore the “R” badge, were removed as well. They were taken to Płaszów, where they were shot. The fear of death fell upon the 3,000 workers in the forced labour camps in Drohobycz and Borysław.

A sudden, unexpected reprieve came through the intervention of the directors who were among the main staff of the Karpathen Öl company in Drohobycz. This came as a result of a telegram sent to Berlin by the directors, requesting the continued existence of the labour camps. The supervisors of the various plants summoned the Jewish workers and delivered the joyous news that Berlin had granted their request.

It would be wrong not to mention the name of the director Egon Schultz and not to describe with praise his deep, humanitarian behavior. At every opportunity, he demonstrated his connection to the Jewish workers and civil servants. He helped many Jews to survive and saved their lives.

Egon Schulz,^[43] born in Hamburg, was the second general manager of the staff in Karpathen Öl AG. He had a decisive say in the management of the enterprise. He was not a member of the party, but thanks to his great refinement, culture, and education, he was able to attain the position and hold on to it.

More than once, Schulz went to the Gestapo to discuss Jewish issues. Understandably he created scandals there, putting his own existence into danger many times. But Schultz almost always was successful. You had to see his joy when he managed to save the life of one Jew, let alone 150 Jews at one time.

“I am happy that I can share with you that we will still be able to work together,” he once said, with tears in his eyes, to one of the older civil servants in the main office, H. Abert, who sadly, is no longer among the living.

In his last effort to save the “R” camp Jews, he emphasized that if his demand would not be approved, he would leave his job and go to the front. Considering his demand, they left these Jews for last, meaning before the Wehrmacht left the city.

On 15 July 1943, according to the plan of a continuing Aktion, all the inhabitants of the camp were taken under heavy guard by the SS and security police, who had come from Lwów for this specific task, and led in groups to the assembly place in the building of the regional courthouse.

During that entire night, these unfortunates were taken to Bronica and murdered there.

During daylight hours over many days, young Poles and Ukrainians, sixteen to eighteen years old, worked at digging the mass graves. Often, it happened that a victim was already standing naked, waiting for the bullet to hit him, although the grave digger had not yet completed his work …

In these extermination places, cakes and food were brought for the murderers. While doing their “sacred” work,” they gobbled up sausages and cold meat and made the petroleum areas cleansed of Jews, so that the executioner Frank, who planned to visit on 10 August 1943, could breathe pure air.

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The SS Camp in Hyrawka

On 20 July, fifty Ukrainian police tore into the camp and rounded up the Jews from their work places, a total of 260 people. They were thrown onto cargo trucks and with beatings and taunts were chased (as crazed and evil people) into the courthouse. There, they were taken into the large courtroom and sentenced to death …

The next day, very early at sunrise, all were taken to Bronica and murdered.

On 29 July 1943, when the city administrators put new work plans into the hands of the Jewish workers in the workshops, not one of them would have imagined that none of them would be among the living on the following day. Who would have thought that the work requested, which would surely have taken two months, would be only an empty order, a deception, so that all could be exterminated at the same time!

During those days, 155 young boys and girls worked in the workshops, all of them healthy and vibrant, all certainly wanting to survive, live, and return home peacefully, be free people, live like human beings and productive citizens.

At dawn on 25 July, the Gestapo and the Ukrainian military surrounded the building where the workshops were located. Beating the workers with the butts of their guns, they dragged them out. With spite, mockery, beating, and kicking, the workers were set out in a line and taken to the assembly place.

They too, as those before them, were taken to Bronica. Two hours later, the murderers removed short dresses, colored blouses, thin stockings, and a mountain of little shoes from the death trucks.

There were still 4,100 Jews in the two camps in Drohobycz and in Borysław (1,800 in Drohobycz and 2,300 in Borysław). They worked and lived with the hope, based on the promises given to them by various German commanders that somehow, they would survive the difficult times until the end of the war.

All the “R” camps in Drohobycz and Borysław were in a special unit commanded by Fritz Hildebrand. His assistants were Minkus, Mensinger,^[44] and Schönbach.^[45] This SS unit was under the control of the security police in Drohobycz.

A small Jewish group, thirty-six men who were tailors and shoemakers, worked isolated, near the Gestapo on Jana Street. They were also promised that they would remain alive …

Everyone knew and feared Fritz Hildebrand from the Aktion in August 1942. But he openly stated that his wish was to be like a father to all the Jews with whom he was connected. He just asked that they be obedient, work hard, and stop trying to flee …

But on 14 December 1943, the day following his heartfelt declaration, a small Aktion was carried out against people who supposedly had no right to wear the “R” badge. Of those who had been assured that they would remain alive, they took 200 to Bronica. At the same time, the same thing happened in the other camps of the Karpathen Öl Company in Borysław and Stryj.

A surprising rumor began to circulate that 1,800 people would be brought from the Stanisławów area to the oil refinery in Bolechów. These Jews were supposed to work on equipment and armament and would enjoy all the benefits and privileges given to the Jews with the “R” badge who were still alive. On 11 January 1944, they were brought to Bolechów. They were ordered to line up and were loaded onto trucks. They were driven to Holobutów near Stryj, where they were murdered within an hour.

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In all the other “R” camps, the terrible situation was already clear. People began to think of escape, but only those who had some money could even think of this.

Two weeks passed quickly. Then, on one February day, they took away all the Jewish directors, officials, engineers and workers in the operations in Lwów and Stryj (the regional offices of Karpathen Öl). They were taken to a designated place and as expected, murdered.

The remaining Jews in the work camps in Drohobycz and Borysław soon found out about this. Now, no one bothered to fool himself that he would come out of this hell alive. There were those who already made peace with death. But others thought about fleeing and looked for the opportunity to do so.

The camp commander Hildebrand held extra meetings where once again he stated his fatherly connection to the forced labourers and gave his promise that all those who were in Drohobycz and Borysław would survive. He said enthusiastically that he received this reassurance from Himmler, Göring, and from Hitler himself. (This murderer did visit Berlin in those days, but for a different reason, to get the consent for more Aktions). He invited the directors, spoke warmly to them, and asked them to try to prevent other Jews from escaping. He always said that his words were true and when with great enthusiasm he swore on the lives of his children and gave his honourable word that nothing bad would ever happen to anyone, laughter was heard among the Jews gathered in the hallway.

Hildebrand ended his speech with the following words: “You can think whatever you like, but I give you my word of honour that you will all remain alive and that nothing bad will ever happen to you.

And from the people assembled there, the sigh was heard:

“Yes, except for death.”

On 22 April 1944, the last of the Jews in the labour camps were taken to Płaszów near Kraków where the majority of them were murdered.

Translator's Footnotes

1. not in the Yiddish article Return
2. Karpeten Öl was a German concern that overtook the entire oil industry in Drohobycz-Boryslaw, incl. oil wells, refineries, processing plants, service etc. Return
3. Literal translation: Wehrwirtschaft – Military Economy; Rüstung - Armaments Return
4. The original footnote in the article states: “See the Pass Card by the Gestapo in Drohobycz, signed by Block, Director of Galicia Refinery”. Actually, Block was head of the Gestapo who at some point took command of the ongoing operations. The document itself is not attached to the article. Return
5. Polmin - Państwowa Fabryka Olejów Mineralnych – Mineral Oils Government Plant Return
6. The Górka camp was in Drohobycz near the huge jail they had built there at the end of the 19^th century. Thousands of Russian soldiers were kept there by the Germans under horrible conditions. Return
7. Friedrich (“Fritz”) Hildebrandt was the Exterminator of Jews in Drohobycz and Boryslaw during July 1943 - July 1944 in his role as Chief Commander of all Jewish Forced Labor Camps in both towns. At that time he was also made commander of Forced Labor Camps throughout Eastern Galicia and therefore had other towns under his responsibility, e.g. Stryj. He was sentenced in 1967 to life in prison and released in 1974. Return
8. The spelling of the names Hetzel, Azef Vetter, Jarosz, and Kubarik is uncertain and the editor cannot discover their identities. Return
9. The name Watermann cannot be verified. Return
10. The members of the Judenrat in Drohobycz that was established in September 1941 were former leaders of the community: Drs. Isaac Rosenblatt, Maurycy Ruhrberg, Bartz and Bernfeld. https://www.drohobycz-Boryslaw.org/en/drohobycz-Boryslaw-and-vicinity/holocaust-and-survival-2 Return
11. ISIPO: the editor has not been able to identify this acronym. Return
12. The Sicherheitsdienst (Security Service) was the intelligence agency of the Nazi Party and the SS, and later the state of Nazi Germany. Return
13. Another account of these events states that “the Judenrat was ordered to provide a list of 2,500 persons. That number was eventually negotiated down to 1,500. https://www.drohobycz-Boryslaw.org/en/drohobycz-Boryslaw-and-vicinity/holocaust-and-survival-2 Return
14. Sokol was a gymnastics organization founded in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Return
15. Rawa Ruska is a town north-west of Lviv. Return
16. An account of the Nazi persecution of the Jews in the Drohobycz area states that the gas chambers were those in the extermination camp at Belzec. https://www.drohobycz-Boryslaw.org/en/drohobycz-Boryslaw-and-vicinity/holocaust-and-survival-2 Return
17. The same account noted above states that this action “August 6^th thru 8^th, 1942, and lasted sporadically until August 17^th.” Ibid Return
18. Hans Michael Frank (1900-1946) was a German politician and lawyer who served as the head of the General Government in Nazi-occupied Poland during the second Word War. Return
19. Baron Otto Gustav von Wächter (1901-1949) was an Austrian Lawyer, Nazi politician, and a high-ranking member of the SS, who was governor of the administrative district of Kraków under the Nazi occupation. In January 1943, he became governor of the District of Galicia. Return
20. Friedrich (Fritz) Katzmann (1906-1957) was a member of the SS and Police Leader in the District of Galicia, stationed in Lwów in 1941 and 1942, where he directed the slaughter of between 55,000 and 65,000 Jews of the city. Return
21. The editor is not able to identify Kreiskommandant Jeromczyk nor Dr Gergeras. Return
22. General Johannes Reinhold Hanke (1912-1981) served with the Waffen SS in Poland in 1942. Return
23. Hans Block (1898-1944) was the commander of the Sicherheitspolizei -SiPo (Security Police) and Sicherheitsdienst – SD (Nazi Party intelligence service). Return
24. This incident happened on 18 November 1942, between the third and fourth Aktions. The pharmacist Reiner attacked and wounded SS- Oberscharführer Karl Hübner, a member of the Gestapo. In the bloody Aktion that followed, 230 Jews in Nura Street and the surrounding area were killed. Among those slaughtered was the well-known writer and artist Bruno Schulz, who was shot on the street by SS- Oberscharführer Karl Günther. Return
25. Yidishe Sotsyale Aleynhilf (Pol., Żydowska Samopomoc Społeczna; Jewish Social Self-Help), a legal organization that organized aid for Jews in camps and ghettos. Return
26. Michał Weichert (1890-1967), born in Podhajce in eastern Galicia and raised in Stanisławów, was a theatre director, historian, critic, and communal activist. During the Second World War, he was in the Warsaw and Kraków ghettos. From 1940 to 1942, he headed the Jewish Social Self-Help group. When the Nazis dissolved this group in July 1942, Weichert obtained their consent to operate it as the Jüdische Unterstützungsstelle (Jewish Aid Office; JUS). This body was closed in December 1942, and Weichert was conscripted for forced labour. After petitioning German officials, he was released in March 1943 and allowed to open a new JUS office in Kraków. His activity there led to postwar charges of collaboration with the Nazis. He was exonerated in a trial in Kraków in 1946. In 1958, he left Poland for Israel, where he published a four-volume autobiography (1960–1970). Return
27. The Bronica forest outside of Drohbycz was the site of massacres of the local Jewish population by the Nazis in 1942 -1943. Return
28. The General-Governor of the General Government of Nazi-occupied Poland was Hans Frank (1900-1946) Return
29. Osyp Kostrzemski, a Ukrainian was installed as mayor of Drohobycz during the Nazi occupation. He was able to save four members of the Binsztok family hidden in the City Hall tower. After the war, Kostrzemski was shot by the NKVD. Leonid Goldberg, “Jak na wieży ratusowej przechowano żydowska rodzine (How a Jewish family was saved in the city hall tower),” Kurier Galicyjski 14, no. 330 (2019): 27. Return
30. These workshops were the idea of Naftali Backenroth, who interceded with the German occupiers to have them established. Return
31. Naftali (Tulek) Backenroth, trained as an agricultural engineer, managed to ingratiate himself with the military occupiers in Drohobycz and later with the German security police and the Gestapo. In an effort to save the lives of Jews, he made himself useful to the Germans by establishing agricultural operations to provide provisions for the Germans, often risking his life in the process. Through his efforts, some Jews managed to survive. He survived the war with his son and emigrated to Israel. Return
32. Karpathen Öl Aktienegesellschaft: the Carpathian Oil company was a public company (Aktienegesellschaft or AG) Return
33. Erich Minkus (1903-1946) was an SS- Unterscharführer (Junior Squad Leader) and commander of the forced labour camps in Drohobycz in 1942-1943. Return
34. Thomas Sandkühler's book provides more information about Weintraub. In January 1943, he was hit in the face many times for not having properly completed some tailoring work. Later, seems to have been put in charge of work assignments in the forced labour camps, then under the command of an SS officer Friedrich Hildebrand. As workers in the camps were being transported to their deaths, Weintraub was put under great pressure to ensure that the productivity of the best workers would not be negatively affected if their spouses were transported. He was forced to replace these with less necessary Jews. Later, in April 1944, Weintraub was forced by Hildebrand to find Jews who had escaped to the forests or were hiding in the city and persuade them to return to the camps. Many did come back either because they did not have enough food or because they were being massacred by Ukrainian militias in the forests. Return
35. It has not been possible to identify this person. – Ed. Return
36. See note 7. Return
37. R. Krause was the deputy plant manager of Refinery South of Karpathen Öl AG in Drohobycz. Return
38. Karl Rindfuss (born 1914), a civilian from Darmstadt Germany, was a boiler master in the Karpathen Öl company, who worked under R. Krause supervising the Jewish forced labourers He shot the Jewish carpenter Izydor Littman who tried to escape a “selection.” http://remembertogetheracrossborders.eu/the-shooting-of-the-carpenter-litmann/ Return
39. Hellmut Bräunlich was Regierungsoberinspektor (head government inspector) of the Arbeitsamt (employment office) which managed forced labour in Drohobycz. Return
40. It has not been possible to identify this person. – Ed Return
41. Adolf Güldner, a member of the SS, was made head of the Arbeitsamt (employment office) in 1941 when it was removed from the authority of the Judenrat. Return
42. The order to murder all the Jews in the ghettos in the General Government came from Heinrich Himmler in the middle of May 1943. Return
43. It seems that the authors have confused Egon Schulz, the chief accountant of the Polmin refinery with Berthold Beitz, commercial head of the Karpathen Öl Company, who was responsible for his attempts to save Jewish forced labourers. Return
44. Phillip Mensinger, a former baker's apprentice, was Hildebrand's underling, to whom he left the job of shooting people. Return
45. This person is likely Roman Schönbach (born 1912), a member of the SS, was a commander of the local collaborators of the Nazis in Drohobycz in the summer of 1944 when he murdered many women and children who worked as forced labourers. Return

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