[Page 48]

In the early 20^th century, the real authorities in the Polish provinces of the Russian Empire were the National Democrats, headed by Dmowski.^[1] The party was extremely anti–Semitic; one of its goals was to deprive Polish Jews of their economic status. As the Jews made their livelihood by commerce and artisanship, this anti–Semitic party declared an economic boycott of Jews in 1909–1910, with the slogan “Don't buy from Jews, buy only from Poles.” The boycott grew more severe in 1912, before the elections to the Fourth Duma. Wysockie–Mazowieckie was one of the places in which the National Democrats carried out virulent agitation against the Jews; this was headed by the local priest. Below is the report by Netanel Zilbershteyn, published in HaTsfira on January 31, 1913.

HaTsfira, January 31, 1913.

Mazowieckie, Łomża County.

Relations between Jews and Christians have been good, until now. The peasant would come to town and sell his produce, then go to the Jew's shop to buy whatever he needed. Although there are two Christian–owned shops in town, the peasants prefer the Jewish–owned shops–for the simple reason that the prices there are cheaper. However, matters deteriorated after the Warsaw Polish press began to announce the boycott. There is some unrest: the peasants say that whenever they gather in church, the priest forbids them to buy from the Jewish shops; and his words are obeyed. The priest would sometimes appear at the municipal offices, when peasants had business there, and disparage the Jews. The nobles in the region were also not idle. They gathered twice in our town and founded a society to fight against the Jews; they even established a savings and loan bank (which the Jews did not have). They decided to open a joint shop for peasants – the nobles themselves stopped doing business with the Jewish shops long ago – and are also planning to open a large wholesale warehouse… All of this did not lead the Jews to take any defensive steps. But the latest incident was such that the Jews could not stay silent. The town's municipality called to close the shops and taverns every Sunday. Naturally, the Christians immediately agreed, as they did not own any shops or taverns; the few Jews who were present refused to sign this resolution. Several days later, several Jews came to the municipality on business. The town secretary, along with the town head, demanded that the Jews sign the resolution, and threatened them if they did not. Not knowing the content of the resolution, the Jews signed. In this manner, they entrapped

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four simple Jews, and thought they would be able to catch a few more signatures. Then they would inform the county head that the entire town wanted to see this done – though we Jews are the majority of the residents. The Jews found out about this, and were furious at the great fraud the Christians wanted to carry out against us. We sent two letters, one to the county head complaining about the priest who was inciting hatred between Jews and Christians, and the other to the commissioner of peasants, asking to annul their resolution to close shops and taverns on Sundays. We hope they will not be able to carry out their evil plan.”

Translator's Footnote:

1. Roman Dmowski (1864–1939) was the chief ideologue of the National Democracy right–wing nationalist political movement, one of whose characteristics was anti–Semitism. It was known by its initials ND as Endecja; its members were called Endeks. Return

[Page 51]

The period of the Polish Republic began ominously for the three million Jews living there – the largest concentration of Jews in Europe after World War One. The liberated Poles celebrated their independence by carrying out pogroms against the Jews. The Jewish community of Wysokie–Mazowieckie received its share of the Poles' rampage (August 1920), and the Jewish delegates in the Polish Sejm (Grynbaum, Hirshhorn, and others) protested to the government and demanded that the pogromists be punished.

The protest of the Jewish delegates and the demand for punishment were expressed in the Polish–language newspaper Kurier Poranny, on August 26, 1920. The article appeared in Hebrew on October 17, 1920, in the Hebrew–language newspaper HaTsfira in Warsaw:

Demanding Justice for the Events of Wysokie–Mazowieckie

On August 26, 1920, the Prime Minister spoke with an assistant from Kurier Poranny, and praised the actions of the Jews of Wysokie–Mazowieckie (and Łomża). The Kurier Warszawski of September 3, 1920, reported that a local partisan force (with the participation of Jews) had been organized in Wysokie–Mazowieckie, and had expelled the Bolsheviks from the town two days before the Polish Army returned. Thirteen Jews died in this battle. As they retreated, the Bolsheviks took 230 Jews and two Poles with them. The Polish Army rescued them from the Bolsheviks, but took the chance to rob, beat, and torture the rescued Jews. The army also plundered and beat the Jewish residents of the town.

The events in Wysokie–Mazowieckie are clear evidence that the Jewish population was the victim of robbery, murder, and pogroms (compared with Łomża), not only where they were unjustly accused of treason, but also where they exhibited their patriotism by taking up weapons against the enemy and suffering casualties. To a certain extent, this attitude towards Jews is the result of criminal propaganda by individuals and groups. As long as the true perpetrators of the anti–Jewish pogroms are not punished, baseless accusations against the Jews will continue to spread unchecked and unpunished.

For all these reasons, the elements guilty of these pogroms should be brought to justice.

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Two people from Wysokie were among the members of the Second Aliya.^[1] The first was Barukh Burshteyn (may his memory be for a blessing). He was a native of the village of Piechoty, which was part of the Wysokie community. His family was well–to–do, and owned an estate and a shop. At age 17, he left his home and emigrated to the Land of Israel.^[2] He worked as a laborer in the Jewish settlements. Once the Jewish Legion was formed, he joined it and served until it was disbanded at the end of World War One.^[3] He was then one of the organizers and founders of moshav Ein–Hai (now Kfar–Malal), which was established in 1913, and abandoned during World War One.^[4] He then started a successful farm, and one variety of the Annona (Cherimoya) fruit bears his name. His son Yitzkhak was a founder of moshav Lakhish. Barukh Burshteyn died a few years ago, after a long life spent building, and defending, the Jewish community of the Land of Israel

Ahuva Ederman was the first woman from Wysokie to emigrate to the Land of Israel with the Second Aliya. She worked in the Central Cooperative office for a long period, and has only recently retired.

Immediately after World War One, when the borders between the new state of Poland and its neighboring states were opened, the first members of the Third Aliya left.^[5] Dov Kaspi (Berish Srebrovitsh) was the first to go, at the end of 1918. He left his wealthy parents and moved to neighboring Lithuania, where the HeHalutz movement had already been organized and there were agricultural training facilities. He participated in establishing the Akhdut group.^[6] When the group started doing agricultural work

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Members of the Akhdut group of HeHalutz in Lithuania, preparing to go to the Land of Israel Third in the middle row: Dov Kaspi Bottom row, middle: Yeshayahu Kaspi; to his left Yosef Banai

After the riots of 1920 broke out in the country, and the Arab workers in Hadera attacked the town, the farmers vowed to employ Jewish workers exclusively.^[8] Yeshayahu Kaspi (may his memory be for a blessing) was the chief shepherd of the town; his assistant was Moshe Soroka (may his memory be for a blessing), later the chief administrator of the Kupat Cholim health organization.

Dov Kaspi and two other Akhdut members postponed their emigration in order to continue their agricultural studies in a school in Germany, where they stayed for two years. They emigrated in 1921. Once all three family members were in the country, the group settled in Karkur. The “Karkur group” existed for five years, with the aim of settling there permanently. However, a shortage of available land and water,

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as well as disease (malaria, typhus, jaundice, etc.) caused the group to leave the site and disband.

One of the first emigrants after World War One was Shamai Kolodny, who emigrated in 1920 and worked as a carpenter in Hadera; he later brought his entire family over. He was active in the tradesmen's union. Others who emigrated from Wysokie in the same wave were the Burshteyn brothers; they followed their brother Barukh (may his memory be for a blessing) who had emigrated with the Second Aliya. These, Avraham (may his memory be for a blessing) and Yehuda (long may he live) emigrated in the early 1920s and were among the founders of the city of Ramat Gan. During that time, their sister Sarah Tuvia–Burshteyn and her husband, the engineer David Tuvia (may his memory be for a blessing), who planned and built many structures in Ramat Gan and Tel Aviv, also emigrated.

Translator's Footnotes:

1. The Second Aliya (1904–1914) was an important and highly influential aliyah (wave of Zionist Jewish emigration to the Land of Israel), during which approximately 35,000 Jews immigrated into Ottoman–ruled Palestine. Return
2. I have used the literal translation of a traditional Hebrew term (Erets–Israel) for the ancestral homeland of the Jewish people. Return
3. The Jewish Legion (1917–1920) is an unofficial name used to refer to five battalions of Jewish volunteers (the 38^th to the 42^th) Battalions of the Royal Fusiliers in the British Army, fighting against the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Return
4. The moshav is a cooperative community of farmers. Return
5. The Third Aliya lasted from 1919 until 1923. Return
6. Akhdut was one of the Zionist youth groups that were training to emigrate to Palestine to become farmers. Return
7. The city of Hadera was founded by proto–Zionist Jewish settlers in 1891. Return
8. The 1920 riots of local Arabs against Jewish residents and British law–enforcement (April 1920), mainly in and around the Old City of Jerusalem, caused the deaths of five Jews and four Arabs; several hundreds were injured. Return

[Page 56]

The newspaper Dos Yidishe Folk of August 9, 1917, describes the founding of a branch of the Mizrachi in Wysokie.^[1] The article follows below, in translation:

“On Thursday, the 19^th day of Elul, a branch of the Mizrachi movement was established in our town, by Lovers of Zion, religiously observant Jews, and young adherents of the Enlightenment; its purpose was to bring together Jews from various backgrounds in a religiously observant Zionist organization.^[2] At the founding meeting, the speakers were Mr. Srebovitsh

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of Łomża, who spoke about the development of Zionism and the Mizrachi movement, and Rabbi Broyde, who described “historic moments” since the founding of the world Mizrachi movement. A committee was elected, with the following members: Rabbi Gershon Broyde, Mr. Pesakh Skubranek, and Dov–Ber Slyepovich. Ya'akov Ratski and David Bermzon represented the Lovers of Zion, and the young people were represented by A. Visotski (Secretary) and Feivel Zarembski.^[3]

HaTsfira of November 15, 1917, recounts: “During the Sukkot festival, the members of the Mizrachi held a grand celebration of the Water Drawing Ceremony.^[4] The town rabbi spoke, and 100 rubles were collected to clothe the children of the poor. A public assembly took place on Simchat Torah, with several speakers, who drew many enthusiasts to join the Mizrachi movement.^[5]

Contributions to the Jewish National Fund also increased as a result of religiously observant Jews' joining the Mizrachi. During the six months between the first day of Nissan (March 24) 1917 and the first day of Tishri (September 21) 1917, 83 marks and 50 pfennigs were collected for the Jewish National Fund in Wysokie.

Translator's Footnotes:

1. This may be the Yiddish–language weekly published in New York in the years 1909–1917. Return
2. The Lovers of Zion movement consisted of organizations founded in Russia in response to the late 19^th–century pogroms, and are considered proto–Zionists. They aimed to promote Jewish immigration to the Land of Israel and advance Jewish settlement there. Return
3. As the last names are not vocalized, they are transliterated. Return
4. A celebration connected with the ceremonies held at the Jewish Temple. Return
5. Simchat Torah (“The Joy of the Torah”), immediately following the Sukkot festival, celebrates and marks the conclusion of the annual cycle of public Torah readings, and the beginning of a new cycle. Return

As in all the towns of Poland, the economy of the Jewish population in Wysokie was based on commerce and artisanship. The Jews bought agricultural produce from the peasants in the environs and sold them manufactured goods. As the nearest railroad station was in Szepietowo, seven kilometers away, many Jews made a living by cart–driving and carrying loads. The goods ordered from Bialystok and Warsaw had to be unloaded and reloaded at the Szepietowo and Wysokie stations, and delivered to the shopkeepers. There were many workshops in town, all small. The owner himself worked, and employed no more than two or three apprentices. Before World War One, Wysokie had a factory; it was destroyed during the war and never rebuilt. The sole reminder of that factory was a well that was used by the townspeople. Thirty or forty percent of the Jews in Wysokie were poor and undernourished; many of the shopkeepers also had trouble making a living.

Relations with the Christian population were not especially friendly, even though the commercial ties were strong. Although the peasants sold most of their agricultural produce to Jews, while shopkeepers and artisans supplied the peasants with clothing, kitchen utensils, tools,

[Page 58]

and other products, a barrier of alienation steadily rose between them.

Wysokie was occupied by Germans throughout almost the entire four years of World War One. Members of the Polish Legions, who organized at the onset of the war to exploit the battle between the international powers in order to liberate Poland from foreign rule, hid in the Masowian forests, and molested the Jews in the meantime. Two Jews from Wysokie, returning from nearby villages where they had bought eggs and chickens, were attacked and robbed by Legionnaires. When the German authorities found out, they punished the Legionnaire robbers. Seeking revenge, the Poles attacked the two Jews, killing one and wounding the other.

After the retreat of the German forces, at the end of World War One, the town was in an unusual situation. The Polish forces were unable to control the town and establish stable authority, as the Soviet Red Army was nearby. Having no other choice, the Jews organized a temporary authority until matters became clear. There were ongoing skirmishes between the Poles and the Bolsheviks, and the town changed hands. In one case, after seven Communist solders were killed by the Poles, the Bolsheviks retaliated by setting fire to the town. The town would probably have burned down, were it not for the Polish soldiers who arrived and extinguished the conflagration. The Poles were eventually victorious, and the entire region became part of the renewed Polish Republic.

Jewish children after World War One, supported by the JDC

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The Jews were neutral in the war between the Poles and the Bosheviks, though some circles of Jewish youth supported the Bolsheviks. Among them were members of the Po'alei Tziyon party, which had been founded shortly before; they cooperated with the Soviet regime that took over the town.^[1] When one of the Soviet leaders was killed, and the authorities held a commemorative event, members of Po'alei Tziyon participated. The man was buried in the center of town. Once Polish rule was established, his grave was opened and the remains discarded.

After the Bolsheviks had finally retreated, some Po'alei Tziyon members joined them. Only a few actually moved to Russia. Several were able to emigrate to the Land of Israel, and others emigrated to Argentina and other countries of Latin America. However, most of the young people remained in the town and attempted to become part of the economy of the new, nationalistic Poland. All these efforts failed. Whereas the older generation was able to adjust to the new conditions and struggled for survival, the young people faced the implacable difficulties of the economic situation and the extreme anti–Jewish policies of the Polish authorities throughout the twenty years' existence of an independent Poland. Conditions were so bad throughout the 1930s that a considerable part of the Jewish population was totally dependent on frequent aid from relatives in America.

It is worth noting that, despite the general distress of most of the Jewish population, there were no beggars in Wysokie. The occasional beggars seen in the town came from elsewhere.

The constant deterioration of economic conditions intensified competitions between the shopkeepers, sometimes to the point of grotesqueness: a shopkeeper standing outside his shop waiting for customers would snatch a bottle of kerosene from a Polish passer–by in order to force him into the shop.

The difficult daily struggle for subsistence led to the realization that establishing common financial institutions, based on mutual aid, would make life easier. This was basis for founding a cooperative bank; the founders were both shopkeepers and artisans. As the majority were artisans, the shopkeepers accused the board of preferential treatment towards the artisans. Once mutual trust had been eroded, the shopkeepers split up the institution and created a bank of their own. Wysokie then had two credit institutions: the artisans' cooperative bank and the shopkeepers' bank. The town also had a traditional mutual–aid fund, which granted small, short–term, interest–free loans to shopkeepers and artisans. It was headed by Ya'akov Cohen.

Wysokie, like all the cities and towns of eastern Europe, had traditional charity institutions as well as more modern assistance organizations; the latter were established in the decades preceding World War One.

Among these institutions were the hostel for travelers, the poorhouse, societies to aid the sick,

[Page 60]

needy brides, etc. Several weeks before Passover, the community leaders collected money in the town to make sure that no one lacked matza and potatoes for the holiday. One year, Khayim–Meir Goldman collapsed and died while doing this sacred work. The Jews of Wysokie thought highly of the command to give charity anonymously to those in need who were embarrassed to ask openly. The leaders would collect money every Friday and give it secretly to the needy. Every Friday evening, after lighting the candles, the righteous woman Yehudit would visit all the homes in the town, gather challah, and give it those who could not afford to buy or make their own.

The Jews of Wysokie had this fine custom: on market and large fair days, when many women were tending stalls and shops, the neighboring women took care of their children as long as the parents were busy making a living.

The damp climate and malnourishment that affected much of the population led to the spread of tuberculosis; the death rate among children was especially high. Thus, the hospital that the town Jews established was extremely important for

A rally before the Sejm elections

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public health. During the last years before World War Two, the town had government health service as well.

Of course, Wysokie had a burial society, which provided proper funerals and ensured maintenance of the cemetery.

In the 1920s, the traditional aid and charity societies were augmented by new expressions of mutual aid. Especially noteworthy was one project: young Jews organized supplies of books and learning materials to poor Jewish students in the state–run elementary school. The best students were assigned to help the weaker students with their homework. Students also collected food and clothing items every Thursday and gave them to the poor students as a Saturday gift.

Wysokie was a town with an atmosphere of study. There were many people from well–establihsed families, as well as many scholars. Reb Yankl (Levi's son) taught the daily Talmud page in the small synagogue of the Ger hasidim. A Mishna society was also established, and the artisans studied a chapter of that work every afternoon at the House of Study, between the afternoon and evening prayers. This society was led by Reb Nakhman Tzemakh. Wysokie also had an Ein–Yaakov society, led by Reb Asher Faygenblum, who would recount the wonderful legends; they, too, met in the House of Study. Reb Yisra'el Leyb, the synagogue's caretaker, led the classes. Less learned folk joined the Psalms society. These were people who were busy making a living all week, and could devote time to spiritual matters only on Saturday afternoons. Reb Khone Abetshkes, their manager, would read the chapters out loud, and the group would repeat them verse for verse.^[2] Reb Khone also took responsibility for keeping the Eternal Flame burning.

In addition to these “organized” societies, religious students would study together in small groups of two or three. As noted, learning played an important role in Wysokie. A talented scholar was more important than an unlearned rich man. The status of Reb Berl Brizman, the caretaker of the Ger synagogue, is a good example. He was a poor man who barely subsisted on an allowance.^[3] However, he was a great scholar (it was said that he knew the entire Talmud by heart), and thus enjoyed high status in the town. He was respected by all, and was considered a great authority on many talmudic matters.

Some of the famous scholars of Wysokie were Reb Nakhman Tsemakh, Reb Gershon Broyde, Red Alter Zak, Reb Yankl Levis (Slodki), Reb David Kahanovitsh. Reb Eliyahu Rubinshteyn, and others. Also noteworthy was the righteous great rabbi Veller, who lived several generations ago. The following incident was told: a fire broke out in the town on Saturday, and the righteous man extinguished it with one wave of his handkerchief. He also blessed the town to escape conflagrations. The Jews of Wysokie were certain that their buildings –largely built of wood – were safe, thanks to this blessing.

[Page 62]

A Talmud–Torah

Until World War One, the kheyder dominated education in Wysokie.^[4] Talmud students would go to study in Łomża and then go on to the famous yeshivas of Lithuania, such as those of Mir, Slobodka, Volozhin, Radin, etc. Adherents of the Mussar movement, founded by Rabbi Yisra'el of Salant, opened a yeshiva in Wysokie, with 70–80 students from Wysokie and the surroundings.^[5] These students were supported by householders in Wysokie.

Modern education began in Wysokie during World War One. The fighting between the retreating Russian army and the advancing German army caused several towns near the German border to burn to the ground, and many Jews who were left homeless sought refuge in other places that were untouched by the ravages of war. This was how a refugee from Jedwabne, Reb Nakhum Skutshendek, arrived in Wysokie. Reb Nakhum was descended from a line of distinguished rabbis, and was a traditional scholar as well as a modern scholar. Although he was close to the Ger hasidim, he opened a modern kheyder in which modern spoken Hebrew, mathematics, and other general subjects were taught, in addition to religious subjects. After his death, his son Khayim–who was a superb pedagogue–headed the kheyder, expanding and improving on his father's work. The modern kheyder closed during the Bolshevik invasion.

In 1921, the Polish government instituted compulsory education for all children below 14. A special government school was created for the Jewish children, called Shabasovka, as it was closed on Saturdays. That was the only difference between the Shabasovka and the general school. Classes were taught in Polish, and the curriculum followed that of the general elementary school. The Shabasovka existed until 1933, when classes began to be held on Saturdays as well; it then became a general school that was attended by Christian and Jewish children alike.

The first principal of the Shabasovka was Butlov, and was later replaced by Rozental, a teacher from Łódź, who was a gifted teacher and a fervent national Jew. He was interested in every child and visited their homes to better understand their needs. When there was no budget to open a seventh grade, he started an evening class for twelve girl graduates of sixth grade. He also attempted to start teaching Hebrew and Yiddish, but the school authorities stood in his way. He used the time earmarked for religious studies in the curriculum to teach Jewish history, mounted plays for the Hanuka festival which were performed in Yiddish as well as in Yiddish versions. Yankl Lev was the Hebrew teacher.

A gymnaziya existed in the town for two years; in the late 1930s, when Polish anti–Semitism became so strong that Jewish and Christian children could not study together, it became a business school. It was then that the Jews of Wysokie decided to establish a Tarbut school. Coincidentally, a dispute broke out at the Talmud–Torah. Although the latter was semi–progressive, it did not satisfy those young people who were members of Zionist youth movements. They demanded a modern Hebrew school, along the lines of Tarbut. These two events – the Shabasovka's transformation into a general school, and the revolt of the young people – led to the establishment of a Tarbut school, which developed well and had seven grades. Its activity was not limited to educating young children; it also organized adult Hebrew lessons

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and joined the effort to spread Zionist ideas by cooperating with the Zionist youth movements. The Tarbut school had its own building, as well.

A branch of Tze'iri–Tziyon was organized in Wysokie as early as during the German occupation of World War One. It carried out intensive Zionist activity. Shortly afterwards, the Skutshandek brothers opened a branch of Po'alei–Tziyon. Their major achievement was encouraging young Jews from well–to–do families to break free of the prevalent prejudice against physical work (considered beneath their dignity). Three bridges were then being constructed near Wysokie; Shamai Kolodny organized these young people to go and work on these bridges. The Po'alei–Tziyon work brigade also participated in the construction of the Jewish hospital. The members of both Zionist Labor parties organized rich cultural and educational activities, established a drama club, and had occasional festive evenings (“balls”).

The first clash between Po'alei–Tziyon and conservative circles in the town occurred before the municipal elections in the new Poland. Po'alei Tziyon organized a

Students of the government elementary school

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mass political rally in the House of Study, where most of the congregation were artisans. When the richest man of the town, Shoulke Kaplan, found out, he rushed to scatter the crowd, brandishing his thick stick. When the crowd mounted a strong opposition, he marshalled the Hasids, who had unexpectedly come to pray the afternoon and evening prayers in the House of Study. There was great commotion, and the rally could not proceed as planned.

The Zionist youth movements that had reached their peak in eastern Europe during the 1920s and 1930s inspired the youth to develop and progress. In 1927, representatives of HaShomer HaLe'umi from Bialystok came to Wysokie and established a branch of the movement there. They were followed by HaNo'ar HaTziyoni, which became the largest youth movement in Wysokie.^[6] HaShomer HaLe'umi was founded by Dr. Tsherniavski and Khayim Halperin of Bialystok, and Moshe Galishinski of Wysokie. This movement encouraged its members to study Hebrew, held talks on Zionist topics and carried out practical Zionist activity, predominantly for the Jewish National Fund. The Zionist parties and youth organizations established a “folk university,” which offered weekly Friday night lectures on public issues, literature, and science.

However, the primary aim of the Zionist youth groups and, to a large extent, the Zionist parties as well, was emigration to the Land of Israel and the training necessary to achieve this goal. Emigration actually started as early as 1919–20. The first to go were the brothers Dov (Berish) and Yeshaya Kaspi (Srebrovitsh) who, together with Bauman, were trained in Germany and emigrated from there in 1919. The first to emigrate directly from Wysokie to the Land of Israel were Arieh Wiecha and Shraga Burak. They left Wysokie at the end of December 1925, and arrived in the Land of Israel in early January 1926.

The HeHalutz organization began its activity in Wysokie in the early 1920s, through the work of Khayim Slodki and Khayim Burshteyn.^[7] The most important project was establishment of the training camp, which eventually served the entire area. HeHalutz ran a training farm in Wysokie, which eventually had to close for financial reasons. However, HeHalutz also helped many members to gain expertise in other areas besides agriculture. Arieh Wiecha learned carpentry thanks to his training there, and worked as a carpenter in the Land of Israel for over 40 years.

As the Zionist youth movements developed, their older members (over age 18) became very active, and many of them emigrated once they received immigration certificates from the British Mandate authorities. Some older members of Zionist parties were also able to emigrate. One of these was Eliyahu Grinshteyn, Chairman of the local Zionist organization, who was killed during Israel's War of Independence.

Wysokie was largely a Zionist town. The Zionist parties Po'alei Tziyon, Tze'irei Tziyon, and the General Zionists set the tone.

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A wedding in the town

There were very few non–Zionist public organizations. The Bund had very few sympathizers.^[9] Agudat–Yisra'el had limited influence, and that mainly among the Ger hasids; they were headed by Reb Shlomo Kiweiku. The Communist party was not very popular, either. It comprised a small number of members, who were active in secret. They did manage to organize a labor union, which mounted cultural activities.

The political and economic conditions of the Jews worsened by the day. Wysokie was one of the few places that underwent a pogrom in 1936 (described elsewhere in this book). Yet, in spite of the generally serious situation,

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public and cultural activities continued without interruption, until the tragic end, when most of the town's Jews were martyred, along with the overwhelming majority of the Jews of eastern Europe.

Voting for the 19^th Zionist Congress, 1935:

General Zionists (“On Guard”)	92
General Zionists (“Time to Build”)	10
Mizrachi, Tze'irei He–Halutz HaMizrachi	97
S. Z. and Po'alei Tziyon Yamin	173[10]

Mizrachi	97
Labor Bloc	173
(From Dos Naye Vort newspaper, July 30, 1937)[11]

General Zionists	11
HaNo'ar HaTziyoni	207
Mizrachi	45
Yidnshtatspartey	2
Labor Bloc	192
Leftist Po'alei Tziyon	1

OZON (ruling party)	5 delegates
Endecja	3 delegates
The Jewish party	3 delegates

Translator's Footnotes:

1. Po'alei Tziyon (“Workers of Zion”) was a movement of Marxist–Zionist Jewish workers founded in various cities of Poland, Europe and the Russian Empire around the turn of the 20^th century. Return
2. Many Jewish communities offer a daily regimen of learning the Talmud, in which each of the 2,711 pages are covered in sequence. The Mishna, comprising six books, is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions. Ein Ya'akov is a compilation of all the stories, parables, and exegeses in the Talmud together with commentaries. Many communities practice the custom of reciting chapters of Psalms. The 150 chapters are grouped into seven portions, so that they can be completed every week, and into thirty portions, so that they can be completed every Jewish month. Some people recite Psalms according to the weekly cycle, while others follow the monthly cycle. Return
3. The source of this allowance is not mentioned. Return
4. Original note: For information about the different kheyders and their levels, see Dov Kaspi's article “Wysokie in 1905–1918”. Return
5. The Mussar movement, which focused on ethics, education, and culture, developed in 19^th–century Lithuania. Return
6. Zionist political movements often splintered and formed new groupings. Return
7. HeHalutz trained young people for agricultural settlement in the Land of Israel, and became an umbrella organization of the pioneering Zionist youth movements. Return
8. The Revisionist Zionist movement, headed by Ze'ev Jabotinsky, supported territorialist maximalism and sought to settle in the full territory of the traditional Land of Israel. The Brit HeHayal group within Revisionism consisted of former members of the Polish army. Return
9. The Bund was a secular Jewish socialist movement. Return
10. The groups referred to in quotation marks and by initials were factions that splintered off from the main party. S. Z. was a Socialist–Zionist faction. Return
11. I was not able to identify this newspaper. Return

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