[Pages 89-90]

The Jews contributed a great deal to the development of the shtetl Jezierna [Ozerna], starting with its external appearance. The houses that belonged to the Jews were distinguished by their nicer outer appearance, particularly the newly built ones. They were higher, built of brick on higher foundations; the roofs were covered with tin. The Jewish houses were also more beautiful inside. The floors were made of wood and the houses had large windows that opened. This had an influence on the non-Jewish population. New, small houses would appear that belonged to the non-Jews, with tin roofs instead of the former straw. The Jews had influence in other areas. For example, the best non-Jewish artisans were those who learned their trade from Jews…

In general, the Jewish settlement in Jezierna was deep-rooted; there already were Jews here in the time of the Polish King Sobieski, to whom the shtetl mainly belonged. Commerce was then in Jewish hands. The shops and inns were exclusively Jewish. In about 1860, the Jezierna estate of Count Lubomirski was transferred to the Jew, Mendil Yampoler; after the suppression of serfdom (the old feudalistic order), the Polish prince could not maintain his agrarian possessions and, as it is told, went bankrupt. Yampoler, on the other hand, adapted to the new conditions and created a blooming garden out of the abandoned fields.

And the Jezierna estate administered by a pious Jew became renowned in the area. There also was an alcohol factory on his estate. The factory was located in a modern building with a high chimney; when the factory was destroyed in 1915 by the retreating Russian Army, the chimney remained and stood for many years. A great significance for the economic development of the shtetl was the building of the first mechanical mill by Reb Wolf Fischer in the early years of the [20th] century, which served the Jezierna area.

Among the professionals were: Dr. Hirschhorn, who was the only medical doctor in the shtetl and the surrounding area until approximately 1910; the only apothecary was L. Mintz, a situation that existed until 1940. It appears that the above-mentioned, in general, were the first ones in the shtetl in their profession. They came to Jeziernia in the 1880's. There were also a few teachers from the Baron Hirsch School. There were more cultural leaders before the First World War, Yiddish writers, such as Shmuel-Yakov Imber, A.M. Fuchs, whose names were known throughout the world. It should be understood that in these professional areas, Jews surpassed the non-Jewish residents.

Finally, there was the Jezierna tzaddik [righteous man], Reb Shlomale [Charap], who in his youth was a dorfsgeyer [village peddler] and was elevated to a higher level by the Peremyshlyaner Rebbe, Reb Meirl, as well as the well-known Rebbe, Reb Levi-Yitzhak Monson of the Rizhiner Dynasty. His court was renowned in the Hasidic world and drew many Hasidim from the Austro-Hungarian Empire to the shtetl. The non-Jewish population also showed the Rebbe great reverence. With the outbreak of the First World War, the Rebbe's escape to Vienna brought to an end the existence of the rabbinical dynasty in Jezierna.

[Pages 91-97]

The Artisans

Jezierna did not lag behind other Jewish towns in Galicia and its many neighbours in anything; not in trade and not in crafts. There were artisans of all kinds: carpenters, tinsmiths, blacksmiths, masons, tailors, shoemakers, furriers, bakers, butchers, porters, and so on.

Eli Charap and his three sons were very well–known builders. They ran a large factory and worked for the entire region. All the work was done by hand–labor. Yisroel Sokolski was also prominent in the area – he was the best smith. Until the First World War, he worked in Kaczyna [?] along with his two sons. Many non–Jews acquired their skills by working for him. Jews and non–Jews alike had great respect for him. Also, the chalutzim [pioneers–in–training] learned their skills from him before making aliyah [moving] to the Land of Israel.

Naftaly was a fine mason. He was responsible for construction of private and government projects. He built the community house, the retaining stone–wall on the market street that supported the baths – from Moshe Wieseltier's up to Jakob Pulwer's. He also built two synagogues and a church.

There were a couple of Jewish tinsmiths in the town: Yizchak Lechowicz held a respected place in the artisan family. He was also a community worker, a member of the community council, and beadle in the synagogue. He also employed his son as well as other workers. Getzel the tinsmith was occupied solely with his daily life and constant work in order to support his large family. There was also Majer Zilberberg, Avraham Kurzrok and his brother Shlomo. This last mentioned, as an Austrian soldier, was taken prisoner in Russia (1915) and never returned. All of these were apprentices of Yizchak Lechowicz. Another one of his apprentices was Yehoshua Fuchs, who is now in London.

The tailor Beril Bernstein was a fine craftsman and also a conscientious person. He was the one who read the weekly Torah portion in the small synagogue. He also had respected children: one was a doctor, Dr. Nisan Bernstein; the second was a dentist and the third, Moshe, was a tailor.

There was also a shoemaker in Jezierna by the name of Berl Bernstein. He lived in the center of the city and was a reputable businessman. Journeymen would work for him, primarily non–Jews. There was also the shoemaker Munye Blaustein, who learned the trade under Berl.

It's important to mention the women who were tailors. Batya Zilberberg was known as a good ladies' dressmaker and employed a few young girls, both Jewish and non–Jewish, as seamstresses. Batya's sister, Raizel Kurzrock, also worked as a seamstress. Aside from those, there were also specialists for women's undergarments (lingerie makers) – the two sisters Ruchel and Esther Braun.

The furrier Josef Okien would sew fur coats and hats for the peasants from the best fur or from leather– that was the national dress for the local women. It was, so they say, a skill that used a special method. He would sell his products at the fairs.

In Jezierna, there were trades and tradesmen that were not so popular. For example, the shingle layers and the so–called 'printers'. The peasants would bring their own home–made fabric, and dye them for their personal needs. This would only be done on one side. This dyer and also the shingle layer (who would cover the roofs) were embodied in one and the same person – this was Reb Yisroel Winter. During the summers he would cover roofs and in the winter he would dye the fabric for summer clothing, primarily for the men in the villages.

The butchers held a respected place in the town. I remember a few butchers: Hersch Katz, Shewach Baron, Gerschon Kurzrock, Avraham Czaczkes and Leibish Rosenfeld. The last one left a generation of butchers – his three sons: Yizchak, Juda–Hersch and Isak–Wolf. Also Natan Braun considered himself one of the younger butchers in the town.

It's worth mentioning the small enterprises such as grain mills and oil presses; with the latter they would make oil from hemp seeds and flax. The peasants would bring the raw products and then grind them here. The grain mill they operated using ‘their own’ strength, and the same with the small oil machine. Each peasant who brought his grains, turned the mill–stone with his own hands… The owner of the mill would take a certain fee for the use of the machine; the owners would also work as millers. The owner maintained the mill so that the output of grain would be satisfactory. One could consider this type of miller as a craftsman.

In those times before World War I, these facilities were very primitive, but later the owners went on to modernize their enterprises. For example, the oil machine was a very simple thing, but in later years this was exchanged for another machine, which was factory–made, simplified the oil production, shortened labor time, and also improved the actual output.

In Jezierna, there were two or three such undertakings. Zische Perlmutter used to make flour and oil and from this he had a livelihood, together with his sons. A certain Schoel Goldberg also had this type of enterprise; he set himself up with modern machinery. His oil machine was talked about in Jezierna and the surrounding area. It was the same for Aron Kurzrock.

The production seasons were before Passover and before Christmas. In general, the times before the holidays were periods of liveliness and commerce in all areas of the small businesses. The merchants and artisans would prepare themselves for these times, and look forward to the seasons with anticipation because their earnings for a few months depended on them.

The percentage of Jewish artisans in Jezierna was practically unchanged before World War II, from the time of the First World War. Very few craftsmen remained from the time of the First World War, but later on there were many newcomers from other places also young ones, who learned the trade and worked independently.

The smith Yisroel Sokolsky died in the 1930s; Beril, the shoemaker, returned from his flight [to safety], and managed his own workshop. He was already an older man and died in the 1920s. The carpenters didn't return from their flight at all after the First World War. Yizchak Lechowicz, the tinsmith, left for America.

Before the outbreak of World War II, there remained from the older artisans Beril Bernstein the tailor, who worked together with his son Moshe. The other Jewish tailor was Azriel Pollak. Michel Altman, who also did tailoring, made aliyah to Eretz Yisrael in 1939, and today operates a tailoring business in Haifa. His brother, Pesach Altman, had a shoe–making workshop until the year 1937; he too made aliyah to Eretz Yisrael, and today runs a workshop in Haifa for orthopedic shoes and also has a shoe store. Schmuel Altman, a furniture maker, a friend from ‘Gordonia’, made aliyah to Eretz Yisrael in 1936. He runs a furniture factory there and is chairman of the Union of Craftsmen in Haifa. There were two tinsmiths: Meier Zilberberg and Moshe Erdreich; the latter was a newcomer. There was also a carpenter, a newcomer, by the name Fink. He lived in Jezierna for a few years. He was an authentic Jewish artisan type. He practiced the mitzvos [Torah commandments], wore a beard and sidelocks, and worked hard to support his large family. He had six children – three of them I knew well. His oldest daughter, Sarah, was sixteen when the war broke out. His workshop was in the house where he lived. He would get up very early and work until the darkness of night set in. In general, the majority of Jewish artisans in town lived this way.

The youth of that time, who wanted to make aliyah to the Land of Israel, also learned a trade. Yakov Kritz, for example, learned a trade in Zborow and today is the manager of the ‘Herut’ company in Haifa. Almost all of the artisans in the town worked alone, without employees, other than apprentices. However there were the exceptions who did hire workers, such as Pesach Altman. Besides apprentices, he also employed non–Jewish workers. In general, there were many non–Jewish apprentices who would learn under the Jewish experts. Once they finished learning the trade, they would consider themselves fine craftsmen. In general, the non–Jews who apprenticed under the Jews also paid more attention to their own work … they simply came more often.

Barbers in Jezierna were exclusively Jewish. There were two barbers, both of them newcomers. One was Yehoshua Schwarz from Tarnopol, and he worked with Issa Blasser. Yehoshua Schwarz was his step–father. Then came the second one, named Berger. He was the son–in–law of the teacher Henzel Steiger, of blessed memory. His barber shop was in the middle of the town and he had apprentices and even employees. The barbers in Jezierna were certified professionals.

Yehoshua Schwarz came to the place through Blasser; they used to call him ‘doctor’. Aside from giving haircuts, he would do teeth extractions, apply bankes [cupping], and ‘cure’ the sick.

There were also so–called ‘midwives’ or ‘bubbes’. These were Chava Scherman (Moshe the beadle's wife), Salke the Bubbe, and also the wife of Schwarz the barber. She also did cupping and ‘cured’ with ‘modern’ medicines: she would give aspirin and quinine.

There were two glaziers. Schulim Bleich had a small shop in the middle of the marketplace among the other community shops. The local residents and those from the villages in the area would bring him their windows to have panes put in. He would do bigger jobs for clients at their own locations. Reb Schulim was a Torah scholar. After a day's work he would go to learn Torah in the Beis Midrash [synagogue study hall]. The second glazier was Reb Yizchok Kritz, of blessed memory, the father of Schimon and Yakov Kritz, who conducted his work respectfully. He was a forward–thinking person and a nationalistic Jew. At the first opportunity, he sent his still young son Yakov to Eretz Yisrael. Several years later, 1935, he liquidated all his belongings and made aliyah to the Land of Israel along with his family, parents, and older son Schimon.

Before bakeries were established in Jezierna, Jewish women would bake cakes for stores and taverns. They would usually bake these in regular house ovens that existed in almost every home. Sometimes, the demand for baked goods was not very great – each homemaker would do her own baking for every Sabbath.

Then, unexpectedly, a professional baker descended on Jezierna, by the name of Reb Izak Mantel. This was at the beginning of the century. He set up a modern bakery in the town, with mechanical equipment. To that end, according to the law of that time, he built a special building with several rooms. His business grew quickly and he had several workers. The baked goods were delivered by a special horse–and–wagon, not only to the local residents, but also to those in the surrounding villages. During the First World War, the bakery was destroyed, but later on, when life stabilized again, the business resumed its work.

In about the 1930s, another bakery opened in the town, with the owner Leizer Zalcz. He was from Lemberg. His bakery was also modern, with technical equipment, and run according to the regulations of hygiene. We must mention that these were the only bakeries in Jezierna and the surrounding area, which was not small.

In the season of Christian holidays, especially Christmas, the bakeries were busy with work. This was the time of baking the koylitches (like small braided challas), and thousands were baked. There was not even one Christian family that did not have these loaves – that were baked in Jewish bakeries – for their holidays.

For Passover, they would make these bakeries kosher for baking matzo. In order to bake shemura–matzo [stringently guarded], the Rabbi would be personally involved.

Jezierna was situated along the Tarnopol – Lemberg dirt road, near the intersection of the so–called ‘Kaiser–Strasse’ [highway]; thus the connection between the two major trade centers went through it. And since all means of communication before World War I was by horse–and–wagon, there were inns all along the entire length of the road. These were long houses which several horse–and–wagons could enter, all at the same time. The owner of this type of house also had, aside from his own home, a type of inn, where one could also have something to eat and drink, and spend the night.

In Jezierna itself, there were four inns; all of them were built close to the road so that the wagon drivers would not have to go far with their heavily–laden wagons. One of these lucrative operations belonged to Reb Reuven Fischer, the father of Wolf. All the owners of these inns were well off; summer and winter there were all kinds of people traveling on the road, merchants from all types of businesses, ordinary passengers on horse–and–wagon, that were protected with covers. Chassidim [followers] going to see their Rebbe, travelled long distances, more than once, and also patronized these same houses. Reb Shlomo Charap also owned such an inn. Generally, the chassidim who came to see their Rebbe stayed there. One of these inns, owned by Yakov Czaczkes, of blessed memory, remained standing until World War II, but it already served no purpose because of the modernization of communication.

The tolls and the tollgates were also part of that period. At the entrance of the town, until the outbreak of World War I, there was this type of checkpoint, where they would take a certain payment from those entering the town from all different places. The toll was on the Tarnopol side before the bridge.

Watchmaker – Motel Byk; his father was a teacher, Bina Byk.

Carriage drivers and wagon drivers: Henik Feuerstein, Sanie Fuchs.

[Pages 98-99]

It's important to remember that just as in the other Galician towns, in Jezierna commerce rested in Jewish hands. This lasted until the 1930s. Even in those places that were entirely non–Jewish, also there the storekeeper was a Jew. It was the Jews who bought the farmers' products. There were Jewish buyers who went from village to village and bought the different products. The grain merchant travelled around with his horse and wagon and bought the grains from the farmers of the quarter–plots of land.

The government organizations did not present any particular difficulties and permitted trade to go on. You only needed to pay for the appropriate permits for this, and these were given out without any restrictions.

Various branches of commerce evolved in Jezierna. In first place stood the agricultural products. These products, which the dealers bought from the farmers, consisted of all types of grains, potatoes, beets, cattle, horses, flax, wool, honey, and chickens.

From all these items, the Jezierna area became a large marketing center. Major dealers were there shipping hundreds of wagon loads of all the products mentioned above from the Jezierna train station. Some of this was exported. These dealers would often buy these products from the smaller merchants, who, as already mentioned, bought them directly from the farmers.

During the war years of 1914–1918, commerce was destroyed and was only renewed with the rebuilding of Poland as it adjusted itself to the new age. After that, commerce grew to become even stronger.

There were no wholesale stores in Jezierna; there were only retail stores. Nevertheless, they were not all alike… There were large stores with a lot of merchandise, and small stores with only few items, and even these minimal items were few in number. There were also the so–called mixed–wares stores that sold textiles, leather ware, ironworks and radios, coal and lumber, taverns and restaurants, beer refillers, wood for building, etc.

There were also articles that one could not get in Jezierna, but had to travel to the bigger cities to buy. These were items such as ready–made clothing, fashionable shoes, etc. There was also no real bookstore in Jezierna. And for all kinds of building materials, one also had to travel to other cities.

In the 1930s, when the bus transportation began, some Jews established a transport company. The first bus that they bought was slightly used and didn't work for long… They exchanged it for a new one. It travelled along the main Tarnopol – Zloczow road. The driver was a Pole, brought in from somewhere.

Even years before the Second World War, a terrible propaganda campaign arose against the Jewish businesses, instigated by the leaders of the Polish and Ukrainian populations. They did not let any opportunity pass to show how the Jewish merchants were making a living at the expense of the non–Jewish residents. Besides the [Polish and Ukrainian] co–operatives, Christian merchants would gather on a daily basis to force the Jew out of business even before the Nazis, may their names be erased, showed how they wanted to physically eradicate them.

This was the so–called “regional politics.”

[Pages 100-107]

Mendel Jampoler, the estate owner from Jezierna, had over 2000 morg (approximately 2965 acres) of farmland, besides the forest and a water mill. He was a religious man, living and acting according to the Jewish traditions. His heirs, Jampoler and Jampolski, had already gone in another direction.

Wilhelm Klinger, an agronomist; in the last twenty years, was the administrator of the above–mentioned estates. He was also – independently – an instructor of the chalutzim [pioneers] who formed an agricultural group in Jezierna, in preparation for aliyah. The farmer – landowners in Jezierna and the surrounding areas would get advice from him and instructions on how to improve their economic situations.

Meir Falk was treasurer [of the estate]. His son was an officer in Poland. His daughter was murdered in the Nazi annihilation. Among the former employees were: Aharon Helin, Hazelnuss, Daniel Bitterfeld, Rubenstein, Ostersezer.

Wolf Fischer, a refined Jew, a learned man, a skilled professional. He was the community representative and for a time also the head of the community. In later times, there were also partners in the mill.

Sumer (Itamar) Katz, a partner in the mill and also a land owner. A refined Jew, he was the cultural representative and also community representative. His two sons, Aba and Munye, were the first to make aliyah to Eretz Yisrael. His daughter lives abroad. Two of his grandchildren (Munye's sons) are officers in the Tzahal [Israeli army].

Jakob Danzer, a partner in the mill, a prominent Jew, a progressive individual. His son lives in Israel.

Josef Kellman, Wolf Fischer's son–in–law, was the manager of the mill. A scholar, a progressive man, a skilled bookkeeper. His son, Dr. Reuven Kellman–Avineri, lives in Israel. His second son lives in America. Theirs was an industrial mill. The farmers from Jezierna and the surrounding areas would also come there to grind their grains.

Jehoshua Flamm, had many fields in Danilowicz. He was a religious man, strictly observing the tradition. He was childless – as a memorial he established a prayer court and gave a Torah in his and his wife Elke's names.

Chaim Steiger, also a grain merchant, a prominent businessman. Of his three sons, one was murdered in the Nazi destruction; the second, Mundik, was a fighter against the Nazis – and he died in Israel leaving a wife and child. The third son, Bena, fought in the Jewish Brigade [from Palestine] against the Nazis, and lives in Rehovot.

Josef Byk, he also had a bank. The manager of the bank was his son Avraham. Three other sons, Yankel, Naftoli, and Motl were landowners and grain merchants.

David Blaustein, a major landowner, a prominent person. For a time he was head of the community, and community representative. His son Tzina (Ben Zion), was a son–in–law of Itche Lechowicz. He was killed in the Holocaust. Tzina's daughter Dozia lives in America. David Blaustein's surviving daughter Rivka lives in Tel Aviv.

Schloma Scharer, a respected Jew, a true farmer. He himself would do the ploughing, sowing, and harvesting of grain in the field.

Schimon Czaczkes, also a grain merchant, a religious man, was the collector for the Rabbi Meir Baal Ha'ness charity fund. His three sons, Motel, Henik, and Itzye worked along with him.

Avraham Pakiet, a respected and refined Jew. He prayed in the big synagogue. No one from his family survived.

Mosche Pakiet, a landowner.

Nachum Fuchs, worked his fields on his own, and bought grain from the farmers and small merchants. A respected Jew, prayed in the Rebbe's court, a community volunteer, well–learned. His children: Berchi, Mosche, Yosef, Chava, Chana, Dizia – all live in America.

Mechil Fuchs, a respected Jew, a real farmer. Prayed in Flamm's court.

Mordechai Gottfried, a small landowner (around 200 morg) [approximately 280 acres] in Serwery. No one of his family survived.

Before World War I, the wholesale grain merchants were: Wolf Fischer, Eli Gottfried and Josef Heliczer. After World War I, the trade increased greatly.

Schimon Heliczer used to export wagon–loads of grain from Jezierna. His two sons, Mosche and Berchi, worked together with him.

Mosche Heliczer along with his brother Berchi ran an export trade. He bought the grain from the estate owners and land–lease holders. They had a large grain storehouse near the train station. A progressive man, he was the community delegate and cultural representative. His wife and two daughters survived.

Berchi Heliczer was a dealer, in partnership with his brother Mosche.

Zalman Scharer, the son of Schlomo Scharer, was a trader, in partnership with his brother–in–law Schlomo Glass. Near the train station they had a large grain storehouse. In the two years before the destruction they – along with Wilhelm Klinger – were the lease–holders of the Jezierna estate. Pepi, the wife, survived, along with two daughters, Bronya and Frieda. They all live in Australia.

Schlomo Glas – a businessman. Worked in partnership with Zalman Scharer.

Yizchak Scharf, a partner with Scharer and Glass.

Avigdor Fuchs – was a purchaser and contractor for the Heliczer brothers.

Majer Zamojre – was both a wood–dealer and agricultural products contractor. The son–in–law of Berl Feiering, son of Avraham Zamojre. A progressive individual, a skilled craftsman. A learned person. He was one of the first Zionists in town. His children, Dvora Gottfried, Azriel and Munya Zamora live in Israel.

Jakob Zamojre – Majer's brother. Together with his son–in–law Josef Feuering, he worked in partnership with Majer Zamojre.

As already described, the wholesale grain merchants had storehouses at the train station. Every Sunday, they would participate in the grain exchange in Lemberg.

Yekele (Jakob) Steiger – a brother of Chaim Steiger.

Chune Fuchs, son of Mechil. Survived the Holocaust, died in America.

Chaim Zottenberg, the grandfather of Jehoshua Gliksman. Was a grain merchant. Also bought oakum and other products.

Jakob Katz, son of Hirsch Katz. An intelligent man, active in the community. His brother, Izio Katz, lives in Brazil.

Majer Bien – a partner of Jakob Katz.

Binye Gottfried and Jakob Gottfried, two sons of Josef Gottfried.

Jakob Byk – a son–in–law of Sumer Katz. An educated person; studious. He would lead the prayers. Mordechai Byk – the brother of Jakob.

Leib Fuchs – son of Avigdor – His two daughters live in Israel (Hadera).

Schmuel Bien – son of Mosche Bien.

Yizchak Halpern and Yechezkel Hoch – No one from their families survived.

Zalman Josef Frohlich – The children live in Canada.

Dudi Spindel – One of his sons was a pharmacist. Another son, a dentist. No one was left of this family.

Munye Pakiet – Mosche's son and Yossi Gottfried's son–in–law.

Scholom Fischer, from Zborow. A son of Moshe Fischer, the main tobacco processor.

Schlomo Feiering, Ostaszowce, a brother of Yisroel Feiering. His two sons live in Canada.

Efraim Rappaport from Nesterowce.

Avraham (Avromtze Eizik Uscher's) Fuchs with his son Walke.

Hersch Leifer, his son Walke came back from the war as a Polish subordinate–officer. Died in the Nazi destruction.

Josef Gottfried from Danilowicz. He and his sons made aliyah to Israel. One of his sons died during the illegal immigration; the second Moshe, lives in Afula; the third, Chaim, in Moshav Herut.

Nute Hirschhorn, the son–in–law of Schewach Baron, was also a contractor for cattle.

Berisch Fuchs from Cebrow.

The buyers would go by horse–and–wagon into the villages. They had a scale with them, and that's how they earned their living.

Wholesalers: (they would load wagons to go to Olmutz; they would also have stalls and would keep animals there, raise and export them): Avraham Kurzrok, Natan Rosenfeld, Hersch Fuchs (from Cebrow), Schewach Baron (he was the main exporter).

Retailers: Munye Rosenfeld, Izak Rosenfeld, Motye Rosenfeld, Aron Hirschhorn, Chaim Frenkel, Leizer Hirschhorn, Jakob Katz (from Cebrow), Yidel Katz (his daughter Chana lives in Canada), Jechiel Bien, Motye Katz, Boruch Fuchs, Josef Fuchs (son of Leibisch), Avraham Kosser, Mordechai Kurzrok.

Export: Aharon Bleich, two brothers Binyomin and Ire Kurzer, two sons of Aron Bleich – Leib and Yidel Bleich.

Avraham Chaim Pakiet (Tzirel Menye's), active in the community.

Mosche Rosenfeld; also worked with oakum. His son lives in West Germany.

Berl Rosenfeld.

Jakob Ast, the son–in–law of Zottenberg.

Mendel Diamant.

Zisia Pakiet (Eli Boruch's) the father of Avraham Chaim.

Scholom Charap with his sons Simcha and Berisch. Religious Jews; scholars. Lived by the Torah.

Leib Fischer – A well–to–do person, lived respectfully, highly regarded in town. His son Lipa lives in Israel.

Nachum Charap – a large flour store.

Leib Segal. His son Yakov Segal lives in Israel. His grandsons Shmuel and Yossi Segal – famous entertainers in Israel.

Abba Fuchs – a delicatessen store.

Yisroel Schapira, Bascha Rosenfeld, Mordechai Hecht.

Avraham Herzog. A grandson of the Sokoler Rav, the son–in–law of Berl Feiering. A gentle young man, a skilled artist. Would draw posters voluntarily for organizations. Of his two sons, one, Motel, survived and is living in America.

Berisch Baron – a fish merchant.

Henik Feuerstein – a haberdashery store. The daughter Fruma, her husband and two children live in Afula.

Jakob Byk – the son of Leizer the teacher.

Luzer Steiger – also an egg buyer.

Mosche Wieseltier – an educated person, a Zionistic worker in the community.

Yisroel Feiering – also in the egg business. A respected businessman. His son Leibisch lives in America. His son–in–law Yaabetz was the Hebrew teacher.

Yizchak Wallach – seller of prayer and religious books. Lives in Israel.

Schulim Lachman, son of Chaim Lachman. A scholar and a fine prayer–leader. The son–in–law of Berl Feiering. Of his seven children, one survived, Anschel, and he lives in America.

Mosche Hochberg, the father of Avromche. A scholar.

Avraham Hochberg – an intelligent person. Educated in a Jewish and worldly manner. A Zionist communal worker.

Mosche Bien – an educated Jew

Zelig Bien – the son of Moshe.

Schimon Schonhaut – the son of Yankel, the ritual slaughterer; the brother of Schlomo Schonhaut; a humble Jew, the son–in–law of Scholom Lachman.

Chana Katz – now in Toronto, Canada. Daughter of Yidel Katz.

Schmuel Reiss – was a respected Jew, a Torah scholar.

Leib Bleich – son of Aron Bleich. Son–in–law of Mosche Bien.

Dudi Pakiet – also a landowner.

Jakob Rosen – a respected Jew, the gabai [beadle] in Flamm's court, a humorist, used to lead the prayers.

Naftali Charap – son of Scholom Charap – a tailoring supply shop.

Scholom Jaffe – Josef Jaffe, son of Scholom; Schmuel Korn, the son–in–law of Scholom Jaffe; Nuske (Natan) Paket; Schuli (Scholom) Fuchs; Yizchok Paket, the father of Nuske.

Zacharia Kaminker , Dovid Spindel.

Itche Fuchs. He would pick up the milk from the barnyard to make the dairy products for the Jews. His two sons and a daughter, Schmuel, Jekel, and Rivka, live in America.

Hirsch Katz, Scholom Lachman.

Yukel (Jakob) Czaczkes and his son Dudi; Scholom Eidel; Avraham Charap; Yukel (Jakob) Pulwer; Schlomo Schwager; Itzie Katz; Olexyncer, the son–in–law of Itzie Katz; Sumer (Itamar) Katz – an inn and tavern for the passengers who came by train and from the villages; Hirsch Katz – tavern. His two sons studied medicine in France.

Hirsch Barer, a partner of Eli Gottfried. A learned Jew and also well–versed in worldly knowledge. His daughters, Leah and Raizel, live in Israel. The son–in–law, Nachum, an educated person, lives in Tel Aviv.

Majer Zamojre – described above in the section on wholesale grain trade.

Eli Gottfried – a wealthy Jew. Also had a large farming business. His son Shloma lives in Israel, Leibish in Argentina. The daughter Devora died in Israel. His son Yoel died in the Holocaust.

Schlomo Willner – His son Zelig and daughter Tuni live in Buenos Aires.

Reuven Willner – son of Schloma.

Aba Katz; Manje Glass, the mother of Schlomo Glass.

Malka Lachman, the mother of Scholom and Mosche Lachman.

Yisroel Zeidman, an honest and learned Jew.

Mrs. Migden.

Meier Apter – leased orchards.

Pakiet Kasier – leased orchards and had sales stands.

Chaim Fuchs – the father of the writers A.M. Fuchs, Y.A. Liski, and Yehoshua Fuchs; leased orchards.

Chaim Schonhaut – salesman in a stall.

Berl Feiering – brother of Yisroel and Schlomo. A prominent person. Active in communal affairs, owned a quarry.

Majer Zamojre; Hirsch Leifer; described under other occupations.

Motel Byk, Mosche Byk.

Yizchak Fuchs (Shpilkele), Motel Fuchs, Leibisch Fuchs, Pinchas Fuchs.

Schlomo Schwager.

Schimon Biller – His two daughters, Reizy and Chaya, live in Canada; Feige died in the Holocaust.

Sanje Fuchs.

Nuchem Kalafer, Nuni Heliczer, Bubek Spindel, Mechil Bernstein.

[Pages 108-110]

In the year 1918, we returned from our flight to Hungary; at the time I was a 10-year-old child. The houses were broken-down and in ruins. Livelihoods were also destroyed. The Austrian monarchy had fallen and the Ukrainian Republic was established, with its Haidamaks [cossack paramilitary bands]. They were joined by the remains of the Petliura gangs who had fled the Soviet revolutionary forces, and Jewish population was scattered among them.

Most of the refugees had already returned home. They received assistance from the Jezierna landsleit [compatriots] who lived in America, and Jewish life began to renew. A Zionist youth organization was founded by Chane Lechowicz, and the local members met at Pinye Paket's z'l. At the beginning, we were a small number of friends, mainly girls. We did this without any help from the adults.

First of all we had to equip the place with a table and several benches. We bought these with our own money. National cultural awareness activity was conducted. Chane Lechowicz held discussions. The first talk was about Dr. Herzl. We also sang songs and danced. Later on, the number of members increased and older members began to help us. Among them was Dvore Fuchs (sister of Sheve), Rifka Fuchs and Rina Czaczkes. Because of financial difficulties, the organization was officially closed a few months later, but the activity continued. From time to time, the leadership would meet and discuss current issues related to the Zionist organization. Activists were Fania Blaustein, the daughter of Avraham Paket who perished in the Holocaust, Chaje Charap, who went to Israel, Yakob Byk, Avraham Hochberg, Reine Czaczkes and others. 

In 1920, we organized Hebrew courses. The teacher of the first course was Shmaryahu Imber, the well-known teacher from the Baron Hirsch school staff. For a variety of reasons he found it difficult to get a place to stay, and rented a room from Itche Fuchs on the Railway Street; that is where the first course was held.

The number of students was small. I remember only a few names. In my age group there were only three: Lea Kurzrock, Schimon's daughter, Noske Feldman, the daughter of teacher Feldman, and myself. There were also older students, such as Basie Katz - Olexyncer with her sisters Reine and Sara, Rosa Lechowicz and others. The course lasted a year. The teacher, as already mentioned, was Imber, who was very devoted to the course, and thanks to this we each learned to read and write Hebrew. He himself was not in a good position, because his family had remained in Vienna. He arrived because he was sentimental about the Jews of Jezierna. But he had to return to Vienna. While he was in town, Dvora, daughter of Eli Gottfried, took a special interest in him.

I did not make much progress in studies, because at that time Yeshaya Yavetz, the son-in-law of Yisrael Feiering, who was a Hebrew teacher, returned to Jezierna. Yavetz influenced the young people to learn Hebrew. With the help of the Zionist Organization, they rented a new location at Chaje Gitel Mantel's, which was in the center of the town, which led to the flourishing of Hebrew studies. Most of the Jezierna youth began serious study of Hebrew. The book they learned from was 'Sfat Amenu' [Language of our People], part one. There were Hebrew books in almost every Jewish household.

In the meantime, the Zionist Organization bought their own place named 'Hatikvah'; the courses were then moved to this location. At that time, the 'Tarbut' school was also established, and thanks to the teacher Yavetz the schools made progress in learning. Yavetz also organized a drama club, and from time to time performances were presented; the income was used for Zionistic purposes, such as buying books for the library.

Yavetz also organized a Bible study circle that attracted senior members of Hatikvah Association. There were discussions on current issues as well. The group existed until the 1930s. Yavetz left Jezierna, but he left behind a generation of students who knew Hebrew. They, in turn, made sure that the studies continued. And in fact Hebrew courses were taught until World War II. As a result, there was not a house in Jezierna where the children did not learn our language. 

1935 - Zionist Youth Group with their supporters

[Pages 111-116]

The twenty years during which Jezierna was under the rule of Poland, that is, the period between the two world wars, were years of lively development of organizational life for the Jews. This was a general phenomenon of the Jewish society in Poland, and Jezierna did not lag behind the other Jewish towns and shtetlekh. This was the period of Schturm und Drang [Storm and Stress] among the Jezierna Jewish youth. All the Jewish organizations had, in general, a nationalistic character and belonged to the Zionist camp.

There was a Jewish National–House in Jezierna which belonged to the General Zionist Organization “Hatikva“; therefore the house was also called “Hatikva“. The house was small and old, with clay walls and a thatched roof. It consisted of a large room and two small rooms. It was said that the owners of “Hatikva“ bought the house before the First World War. It was in bad shape, like other Jewish houses; it was renovated somewhat – and the society began its activities. The plan was actually that, with the help of American landsleit [people from the same town], it would be possible to build a new modern house in place of the small one. But this plan was never realized and they remained with the small house, in which all of the movements found their places, and about which I will now write.

The main initiative to buy the house came from several Zionist activists, with the well–known teacher Schmaryahu Imber at their head. When he returned from his place of refuge along with the other Jews, he immediately began organizational activity, such as evenings of singing and dramatic presentations. The need for their own house was felt and so they decided to renovate the old house, and the money was collected from Jezierna's Jews. The whole thing was remarkable – that such a small Zionist organization could raise the funds and renovate its own house, while larger organizations in the neighboring towns and shtetlekh could not…

They immediately started to organize a library. They managed to collect a few hundred books in Hebrew, Yiddish and Polish. They had the classic Yiddish works as well as works of outstanding writers of universal literature. Then they started other activities. Young and old came to the meeting hall of Hatikva; there they read newspapers, borrowed books, and discussed all kinds of Zionist problems.

Different points of view and philosophies of life appeared among the members of the society. The younger members leaned towards the pioneering camp, to Labor Eretz Yisrael; others tended towards Revisionism, which had begun to spread in the Jewish world. A third group remained among the ranks of the General Zionists, which lost some of its influence on social life in the shtetl.

Thus there were three groups: the General Zionists, the Leftists, and the Revisionists. There were quite often quarrels among the groups, especially during the thirties. New members, mostly young people, joined the organizations, and went through hahshara [preparation] hoping for the possibility of emigrating to Eretz Yisrael.

The first youth organization in Jezierna was “Ha–No'ar ha–Tsiyoni“ whose founders were Wolke Laufer, Ninke Katz, Yosef Fuchs, Helenke Fuchs, Hannah Fuchs, Azriel Zamojre, Hannah Marder, Mosche Altman and others; the writer of these lines also belonged to this group. The organization then rented a meeting hall from Rifka Fischer (Trapik) and even started a small library. However, this meeting hall did not last long and was soon disbanded for financial reasons. (This applies only to the location, not the organization).

A “Circle for Culture and Science“ was also established. It rented a meeting hall from Dudye Paket and was joined by a large number of members, among whom were people with refined cultural tastes. Since there were Revisionists, they influenced the choice of name, “Herzliah“, and joined the Revisionist Organization. This was the seed of the movement in Jezierna. From that time on, there was a Revisionist Organization in Jezierna with widespread political activity among young and old. There were members of “Hatikva“ who also held the Revisionist point of view. Among them were Avraham Hochberg and Yizchak Charap. “Herzliah“ moved into one of the little rooms in “Hatikva House“. They then organized a Betar and a “Brit ha–Hayal' movement with Lander at its head. At the same time some of the previous members of “Ha–No'ar ha–Tsiyoni“ moved into the room of the General Zionists.

The General Zionists then began to support the Zionist youth. They established the so–called “Apieka“ which helped to reestablish “Ha–No'ar ha–Tsiyoni“. Mordechai Marder and Yakov Zamojre were especially active. They started a hahshara [preparation farm] for “Ha–No'ar ha–Tsiyoni“, which also included pioneers from surrounding shtetlekh.

As was mentioned there had long been in Jezierna a leftist Zionist group; it was later called “Hitahdut“ [unity]. This organization was in touch with the Lemberg [Lviv] center and from time to time various lecturers visited. Among the outstanding members of the branch were David Paket, Yosef Feiering, Yizchak Charap, Shmuel–David Shonhaut, Itche Paket and others. There was nobody under eighteen there. When the “Hitahdut“ joined the “Po'ale Tsiyon“ in 1930, and founded the “Ihud“, some members left, but in general the branch became stronger.

The “Ihud“ became a strong movement. In spite of the internal dissensions, many new members joined. At that time among the new members were Dr. Chune Litvak, Schule Fuchs, and many young members. The first chairman of the united party was Schimon Kritz.

First of all they organized the youth movement “Gordonia.“ For that purpose they rented two rooms in Yette Willner's house. That is where they had their meetings. The already mentioned Dr. Litvak helped bring in and activate the young people; he devoted himself to this goal, body and soul. “Gordonia“ became very well–known and many young people from other organizations, influenced by the Zionist–Socialist ideals, joined. Somewhat later they left the rented quarters and moved into the third room of the “Hatikva“ house. This was very hard because the room was in very bad shape and they had renovate it. This was carried out with difficulty. The same room used by “Gordonia“ was also used by the “Ihud“ organization, the “Ha–Po'el“ sport club and the “League for Labor Eretz Yisrael“. They also set up a new library, with modern new books, which quickly enrolled many readers. Many young members put great efforts into organizing the library. This library, along with the two other Jewish libraries, were confiscated at the beginning of the Soviet regime, in 1939. This library, along with the Polish and Ukrainian libraries, became a general municipal library, in the Polish “Dom Ludavii.“

The Zionist organizations were also involved, as mentioned previously, with emigration to Eretz Yisrael [Palestine]. In the shtetl, the importance of an organization was reckoned, and rightly so, with how many members it could give the possibility of emigrating to Eretz Yisrael . There was no lack of candidates; often, because of this, there was friction among the organizations, and even among the members of the same branch. The ‘certificates’ for emigration were scarce, and a small town like Jezierna received very few certificates. Nevertheless, members did emigrate from time to time. The first emigrants were Pesach Altman, Shimon Kritz, and their families. Munye Katz was the secretary of the “Ihud“ but after a short time he also emigrated. Afterward Mosche Byk became secretary.

That was a turbulent period with conflict among the three parties. Each one wanted to spread its influence, especially at the time of elections to Congress [World Zionist Congress]. It was a time of “no holds barred,“ even the use of physical force, especially by the Revisionist side. I remember a public meeting at the time of the Congress elections organized by the “Ihud“ in the synagogue. The guest speaker was Dr. Hornstein from Tarnopol. In the middle of his talk there was heard loud heckling. There was a tumult in the fully packed hall. The meeting was disrupted; the speaker barely escaped from the hall. The organizers were very upset and it led to personal quarrels and cursing.

The “Ihud“ continued its struggle democratically. Moshe Byk wrote satires and pamphlets, in which he criticized the members of opposing parties; the opposition called the members of “Ihud“ “Bolsheviks“, “Stalinists“, and the like. Nevertheless, it was the problem of “aliyah“ [emigration to Palestine], which was at the forefront. When I was the last secretary of Ihud, from 1936–1939, I had to fight with the central organization in Lemberg [Lviv] for candidates for emigration. The party also devoted much effort to educating the young, the future of the party. There appeared posters in Polish, in which were printed articles and songs on actual problems. In later years the pioneering organization “Bosliya“ joined the branch. It was particularly involved in agricultural training for its members.

One can say that in Jezierna, all the young people were involved in organizations. While they were in school, they were helped with their lessons, there were courses organized for them, although before the Second World War there was no longer a special teacher of Hebrew. The young people strove to advance their studies beyond the seven–grade public school, via the gymnasia [secondary schools], which were outside Jezierna, therefore neglecting the study of Hebrew.

There were national institutions where all three organizations worked together – Keren Kayemet [Jewish National Fund], and the Keren Hayesod. Here as well there was friction and opposition. The Keren Kayemet activity was to collect funds in the Blue Boxes; every month two pairs of people would go around to empty the boxes and to distribute boxes where they had not yet been placed. During the ‘holidays’ people would announce donations to the Keren Hakayemet when they were called to the Torah in the synagogue or before the blessings for sick individuals. On the twentieth of Tammuz [Yortsayt of Herzl] there were assemblies and events in the streets.

Every Jewish house had a KKL box. Even if the father did not put in any coins, his children did. Often the older generation were not Zionists but the children were devoted members of the organizations.

The “Keren Hayesod“ also had fund–raising activities, but these were managed by respected men of the shtetl and representatives of the organization. Such events occurred once a year.

A rival to the two national funds appeared in the Jewish street, the “Keren Tel Hai“ [Tel Hai Fund]; this was after the Revisionists left the General Zionist Organization.

In “Gordonia“ there were “conversations.“ We danced and sang and did gymnastics and drills in Hebrew. It was often quite interesting. The participants wore identical shirts and it made a good impression.

The “Ha–Po'el“ was actually a sport club. It bought necessary apparatus for soccer and handball and they played in … the market–place. They would set up two poles, spread a net, and play. There was a table–tennis table in the meeting hall. The “Ha–No'ar ha–Tsiyoni“ also had a ping–pong table.

[Page 117]

Almost all variations of the Zionist organization were represented in Jezierna.; Those which became active across the whole Yiddish world found themselves popular in Jezierna as well. Now I would like to list a few female and male members of the organizations.

“Hanoar HaZioni” [Zionist Youth] – Afeka Chapter

Mrs. Olexyncer Batya, Altman, Mrs. Glass, Mrs. Henia Heliczer, Mania Hazelnoss, Schlomo Glass, Mrs. Herzog, Hirschhorn, Gottfried, Mrs Zalz, Teacher Chermoni, Jacob Zamojre, Tyncie Zamojre, Dr. Tenenbaum and his wife, Mordechai Marder, Reize Marder, Neski Paket, Fuchs, Mrs. Fuchs, Mrs. Steiger, Pepi Scharer, Abraham Scharer and his wife, Nunke Kellman, Wilhelm Klinger.

Supervisory Committee of Zionist Activities (Jewish National Fund – Keren HaYesod) Zisel Goldberg, Chaya Charap, Eti Pakiet, Dora Fuchs, Rifka Fuchs

[Page 118]

Executive of The Jewish National Fund:

Among Others: Pepi Spindel, Rina Hochberg, Berisch Charap, Abba Katz, Tzila Rosen, Nunio Paket, Dora Fuchs, Feiering, Freida Spindel, Josef Feiering, Itzi Paket, Avigdor Fuchs, A. Lachman, Sarah Katz, Chaya Czaczkes

[Page 119]

Revisionists, Herzlia, Betar:

Aaron Charap, Chaya Czaczkes. Malzia Schwager, Abraham Hochberg, Salke Fuchs, Nunke Kellman, Yekele Fuchs, Fruma Feierstein, Selma Schenhod, Jacob Paket, Josef Zilberman, Reize Paket, Helenka Fuchs, Nachum Katz, Pulwer, Gusta Hazelnoss, N.Fuchs, Chonke Fuchs

[Page 120]

The Revisionists in Jezierna were a large active group

His name was Naftali Charap and he wrote sensationalist articles for the 'Lemberg Tagblatt'. Sometimes they were about 'remarkable events', other times about 'womens' topics', etc. All the stories supposedly took place in Jezierna. When there appeared to be too many sensational stories happening is such a small town, it was understood that Naftali had taken the stories about women and men from American newspapers and signed his name at the bottom. He just 'changed' New York to Jezierna....
Thus the career of the correspondent was ended.

[Page 121]

United Poalei Zion, Ihud, Gordonia:

David Paket, Josef Feiering, Yizchak Charap, Schmuel David Schonhaut, Itzie Paket, Dr. Chana Litwak, Schule Fuchs, Schimon Kritz (the first president).

Members, among others:
Muni Blasser, Etil Pulwer, Latte Marder, Lusi Fuchs, Lipa Fischer, Jakob Fuchs, Avraham-Chaim Paket, Pesach Altman, Mosche Byk, Schmuel Bien, Moti Katz, Dezioni Zamojre.

Gordonia Executive: Lipa Fischer, Avraham-Chaim Paket, Pesach Altman, Mosche Byk, Latte Marder, Etil Pulwer

[Page 122]

A group of members of the executive of “Gordonia” and “Hapoel” A. Falk, Lipa Fischer, Nunke Kellman, Mosche Byk

M. Kalafer, N. Kellman, P. Lander

[Page 123]

The “Hatikva” organization in Jezierna celebrates its 25th anniversary Yitzchak Zilfe, Jakob Fuchs, Heinich Czaczkes, Pesach Altman, Avigdor Fuchs, Avraham Herzog, Schimon Kritz, Wolf Fuchs, Zelig Feiering, Ire Kurzrok, Yitzchak Charap, Olexyncer, Jakob Zamojre, Mordechai Marder, Schmaryahu Imber, Avraham Hochberg, Schmuel-David Schonhaut, Nute Paket, David Czaczkes, Sender Shonhaut, Meir Paket, Avraham Danzer, and others. (taken in 1929)

“Hapoel” and the League for workers of Eretz Yisrael in Jezierna: M. Schapira, Sch. Bien, M. Byk, V. Gottfried, M. Altman, J. Fuchs, Z. Feiering, M. Harenstein, M. Pulwer, Sch. Gottfried, Kenigsberg, M. Katz, M. Gottfried, Sch. Kritz, G. Fuchs, L. Fischer, Sch. Fuchs (beside his young daughter), D. Gottfried, Dr. Ch. Litwak, L. Marder, A. Fuchs. Holding the “Hapoel” sign: Michel Fuchs, Alesh Litwak

[Pages 124-125]

Pioneering and training movements played a large part in Jezierna. Despite the differences in political and cultural opinions that divided them, among Jezierna householders and youth there was no disagreement on the subjects of pioneering and aliyah [emigration to Palestine]. There was productive competition, in which each party and group wanted to have the most members and supporters emigrate to the Land of Israel.

In Jezierna, an agricultural training center was established on the estate, which was managed by the administrator and agronomist, Wilhelm Klinger.

Others who worked at the estate also helped the pioneers. From time to time, party member Berl Schtok (today Professor Dov Sadan) would visit from the central organization.

Not only about pioneering and training were all levels of Jezierna's society united. The same unity was also found in so-called 'local politics' - whenever there was an issue about anything relating to Jewish interests, whether economic or cultural.

The young people treated their elders with respect, whether they were religious or free-thinkers. They would even observe the traditions on their own, and more than once protested against negative trends on these matters.

A group of Pioneers Motel Byk, Naftali Charap, Sender Schonhaut, Avigdor Fuchs, Benzion Bleich, Leibusch Gottfried, Jakob Schwamm, Shimon Kritz, Shlomhele Gottfried, Jakob Fuchs They said farewell to the head of their group Yitzchak Charap on his departure to Eretz Yisrael (in the year 1925)

3 Pioneers: Yitzchak Charap, Shmuel-David Schonhaut, Josef Feuering (1924)

[Pages 126-128]

In Jezierna there were two schools; a public school and the Baron Hirsch school that was only for Jewish children. After its forced closure, only the public school was left.

In the town there was a thirst for knowledge. There wasn't a secondary school, but many Jewish youth took the “school–train” to Tarnopol to study at the gymnasium [high school] there.

There was also an attempt to organize enrichment courses of the type that prepared students for the gymnasium or for its entrance exams. These courses were organized by Grubber, a Jezierna secondary school graduate, who later became a pharmacist. His son emigrated to Israel after the war, and was killed in the War of Independence in 1948.

Every morning one would see many boys and girls at the train station. Their destination, as we have already said, was Tarnopol for their studies at the gymnasium. Thus, thanks to this, many youth in Jezierna gained both a secondary school education and also a university degree.

On the school–train that ran from Zborov to Tarnopol, there was one carriage that bore the sign “Jezierna”. In this carriage the students from Jezierna would regularly travel, both girls and boys. Who were among these passengers? – Moshe Sharer, Motel Spindel, Yakov Katz–Fuchs, Aharon Charap, Leah Barer, Malcze Schwager, Lotte Marder, Andzi Marder, the Haselnuss sisters, Munya Steiger, Wolf Laufer, Nisan Katz, Nuchim Katz, Ezyo Gersten, Schmuel Gersten, Yossi Fuchs, Lipa Fischer, Rosenfeld, Kalafer, Natan Kellman, Moshe Altman, Margulies, Muni Katz, Shlomit Katz, Brania Scharer, Freda Scharer, Yosef Hoch, David Czaczkes and others. In the station at Tarnopol the two Heliczer sisters and Henia Klinger waited.

These studied away from Jezierna: Beno Steiger, Munyo Zamojre, Nisan Bernstein, Reuven Kellman and others. At the seminary [teacher's college] studied: Rena Katz, Devora Gottfried. A young woman, the daughter of the milk–seller Schonhaut, won a scholarship and studied in Lemberg (Lvov), at Doctor Klaften's Art School. There she married a teacher. They were both killed in Jezierna.

On Saturdays, everyone used to remain in Tarnopol, so as not to travel on Shabbat. At school they also refrained from writing on Shabbat.

The “Jezierna carriage” was full of life and laughter. It was customary to tell “secrets”, daydream, sing and even, off in a corner, review words in Latin or prepare mathematics homework. The conductor would enter and greet the passengers: “Jin Dobreh, Jezierna” [Polish: Good morning Jezierna], and in chorus everyone would answer: “Jin Dobreh Pani Conductor!”. He refrained from checking the tickets. He knew everyone – these were his daily commuters.

There were three public gymnasiums for boys in Tarnopol, and one (privately owned by Lenkewicz) for girls. The third gymnasium specialized in mathematics and physics, and the mathematicians studied there – the aim of these students was to become math teachers or engineers or economists. There was also a vocational school.

Each day conversation always turned to the teachers, especially the Jewish ones among them. The math teacher, Franczos, was once a yeshiva student and more than once would interrupt in a gemara–chant [sing–song]: “Where's your X, Landeh? Where's your Y, Landeh?”. Numerous students would write a little Yiddish in their German homework. The German teacher, Doctor Teiwim, would discover this and ask where the Odessian Deutsch came from.

Something about the cheders [Jewish elementary schools] and their teachers: All the boys also learned in the cheder, so that after a hundred and twenty years [optimal lifetime], they would be able to say the kaddish prayer, learn a passage from mishnayos [oral laws], and other traditional readings [recited after the death of a parent].

The rooms were cramped (the children already started to learn at age 3). There was a beginners' teacher, a chumash and Rashi teacher [Torah and commentary], and a gemorah [rabbinic discussions] teacher. The star pupils studied with the Rabbi, with diligent Torah scholars, or went to study at a yeshiva. There were Jewish scholars who struggled to earn a living and earned a bit more by teaching a couple of children.

The beginners' teachers were: Yakel Melamed, Henzel Steiger.

[Page 128]

There were also assistants: Aharon–Yizhak, Iche Shorr and others. Their role was to carry the small children to the cheder on their shoulders.

The Chumash and Rashi teachers were: Binya Byk, Lazer Byk, Eliakum, Avraham Reis.

The Gemorah teachers: Peretz Schwartz, Hirsch–Leib Stokhamer, and Yakov Schochet. They taught at the Beis Ha–Midrash [synagogue study hall] or in their own private homes.

In addition, Itzeh Paket, a yeshiva graduate, taught the older students for free. Visiting teachers were also occasionally invited for a zman [semester] or two.

In the cramped shtiebel [little house] of the beginners' teacher, about twenty small children sat around the table; squashed and jostling one another. The teacher had a large siddur [prayer–book] for the children with extra–large fonts, such as are printed for the blessing of the moon prayer. Apart from this, he would search in the siddur for instances where the letters were especially large. The rebbi–teacher would say: “kametz aleph, kametz beis”– and the children would answer in chorus. The teacher and children “repeated the words again and again” – like it is said in the well–known song – until the teacher felt sure that the children knew the words.

The teachers obviously did not have a pedagogical knowledge, but through experience they constructed their own methodology, (cheder–methods) from the group to the individual usage. Using a titel [wooden pointer], they would point to each letter. The Chumash–Rashi teacher also used this method, as well as another one. He would point with his finger from place to place, (called the ‘nail method’). Every Sabbath the students would be taken to learned Jews , for a ‘farheren’ [hearing]. – This was to test the students' comprehension.

The Gemorah teachers had a different method. The student would read the text alone, as well as the interpretations, and the Rabbi would only help where it was required. Today this would be called ‘independent learning’.

It should be mentioned that the first Hebrew teacher was Shmaryahu Imber, and after him, for many years, the teachers were Yeshayahu Yavetz and David Chisdis, from Rovna. By the time they left Jezierna, there was already a group of their students who were able to replace them and continue their work until the start of the Second World War.

In 1924, there were chalutzim [pioneers], who came to Jezierna to Hachshara [pre–Aliyah agricultural training program]. They would also teach the children Hebrew. Among these was Zvi Hermoni (Weisselberg), who lives in Israel in Kibbutz Usha.

[Page 129]

Jezierna, which had about 180 Jewish families before the First World War, was reduced to 120 families after it. During WWI, which took place right along its perimeter, all the Jewish families moved to the center of the country, fearing the enemy troops who targeted primarily Jews. By the end of the war a number of the families were scattered around the world and the Jewish community was small.

In spite of these circumstances, our town was among the most developed, both in its level of education and especially for its Zionist movement, which was founded by Shmaryahu Imber, of blessed memory, whose brother wrote ‘Hatikva’. An official Zionist association and a Hebrew school already existed prior WWI, at Imber's initiation. The association had the best people and youth working together for Zionists causes, and also owned a private function hall.

With the return of the Jews to Jezierna after WWI, the school was reopened and the activities of the Zionist association were renewed. I remember that during the war between Poland and the Ukrainians, when Petlura and his troops were encamped at Jezierna's train station, we established “Agudat Bnot Zion” (Daughters of Zion Association). On Saturdays the cultural elite and youth all gathered for readings of interesting Hebrew literature (which was illegal, of course). And there, in one of the meetings, the door opened – and in came a Petlura soldier… no words can describe how we felt at that moment… When he saw our fear and confusion he said: “Shalom, I am a Jew, I heard about you, and came to take part in this too”…

At the end of the wars between the Ukrainians, the Bolsheviks and the Poles, and since the Poles had the upper hand, they slowly brought life back to normal, and we returned to our routine Zionist activities. We established a few committees, such as the Keren Kayemet (Jewish National Fund) committee, and the Pikuach (Supervising) committee. Every once in a while we held gala events and dedicated the funds we raised to Keren Kayemet (JNF). Later, after the Ukrainians built a large function hall, a drama club was organized under the helm of Fancia Blaustein. Our performances got rave reviews in a place where theater, or even a cinema, did not exist.

I remember that it was problematic to get a permit before each play. Of course, this had to be done under false pretenses, for the good of the charity organizations. Chaya Charap knew how to trick the authorities in order to obtain a license. The funds, of course, went to the Keren Kayemet for Israel. We should mention here the skirmishes with the Orthodox Jews who opposed the “moral looseness” –– they dubbed us ‘the comedians’. This caused bitter conflicts in many homes between the youth and their parents.

As I said, the Hebrew school already existed prior to WWI. I was among its first students. After teacher S. Imber, of blessed memory, left town, teacher Yaabetz of blessed memory replaced him. One of the top educators, he too left after a number of years, and then we – the senior students – took it upon ourselves to continue to manage the school until a new teacher arrived.

In 1924 a kibbutz group arrived in Jezierna for hachshara (training). A few local youth joined them. This inspired the youth to make aliyah (move to Eretz Yisrael). Among the first olim (immigrants) was Aba Katz, who went as a tourist. Discussions started and inquiries began on how to make aliyah. At Fancia Blaustein's initiation, we decided to establish a group for girls, ten of us all together. Each of us had to put in a sum of money and then emigrate together as a cooperative. Out of the ten only three immigrated. Following our correspondence with the Aliyah Center we finally received our certificates. Chaya'le Charap went first. I, who was married by then, gave up my certificate, because my husband had received his at the same time and I was able to join him as his wife. It should be noted that it was very difficult to receive certificates at that time, due to the British desire to control our moves as much as possible and to prevent Jewish immigration to Eretz Israel.

Some staff of the Hebrew school in Jezierna

The Jewish youth of Jezierna thirsted for education, general education, not only in high school, but also in the university. As it was difficult to study in Poland because of various restrictions, many studied abroad.

Shalom Francas, a child from a religious school studied in Vienna. He graduated from the university (mathematics) and became a mathematics teacher in the high school. The two Jewish doctors in Jezierna were born in the neighbourhood. Dr. Chana Litvak came from Zborow, a village near Jezierna, studied medicine and settled as a doctor in Jezierna. Dr. Tennenbaum, who came from Polowce near Jezierna, completed his medical studies and settled in Jezierna. Dr. Nissan Bernstein graduated from the Jewish Gymnasium [upper school] in Lemberg [Lviv], completed his medical studies in France, obtained his license in Cracow and settled in Chenstakova [Czestochowa].

Others who studied in France: Aharon Charap (did not finish his studies) Yaacov Fuchs–Katz (textile technology), Moshe Katz (returned to Jezierna in 1935 and afterwards emigrated to Eretz Yisrael Israel). Those who studied medicine: Walke Steiger, Nissan Katz, Lala (Yossi) Fuchs.

In Belgium studied: pharmacy – Mosche Scharer; he lived in Brussels.
In Italy studied: medicine – Izio Gerstein, Doski Charap.
In Germany: economics – Reuven Kellman; he received his doctorate and lives in Israel.
In Czecho–Slovakia: pharmacy – Channah Klinger (Duhl), Sofia Heliczer (Anderman), B. Spindel. Medicine: Josef Mosczysker, grandson of David Blaustein.
In Lemberg University: Malzia Schwager – humanities.

Those who completed high school but did not continue to study:

Azriel Zamojre – emigrated to Eretz Yisrael; and is now supervisor of the department of mail and telephones.
Yosef Fuchs – lives in the USA.
Two Gottfried sisters.
Zila Heliczer – now living in Switzerland;
Manek Margulies, Leah Barer–Korngold – now in Haifa.
Aimek Falk – now in Poland, a colonel.
Nunke Kellman.

Those who also studied medicine but did not finish: Walke Laufer and Mondek Steiger. Azriel Zamojre is an engineer at the postal company.

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