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Welfare and mutual help

In addition the above societies there were also other philanthropic associations such as “Malbish Arumim”, “Maot Chitim”, “committee for the supply of firewood to the poor,” and their names attest to their nature and role. Various public activists concentrated their public activities around other institutions such as: the Jewish hospital, Talmud Torah, and Gemilut Hasadim. The idea was – everyone, whose heart inspires him to act generosity, meaning – everyone chose for himself his field of activity and the association for which he wanted to act. The gabbaim, or “kamitetshikim,” were chosen by their “close associates” and apparently did not adhere to democratic principles. We rely on the testimony of Y. Schildkrauth who writes in his book: “During those difficult times of the Tsarist rule, when there were no organized communities yet, the above–mentioned cultural–philanthropic societies occupied a prominent place in the Jewish life in Akkerman, and brought quite a bit of benefit to the Jewish population.”

As noted above, the main philanthropic activity was concentrated in two associations that were centered in St. Petersburg. “The Society for the Distribution of Education” supported Mr. Gelfand boy's school, Kaufmann–Harmatz school, and also the Sabbath eve school, which was founded in 1895 and its purpose was to promote the education of young Jews who did not receive a formal education.

B. D. Kaufmann school, which was supported by “The Society for the Distribution of Education,” stood out in its assimilation like all the schools supported by this society throughout Russia, and its principal was probably loyal to this line. However, it should be noted to his credit that it allowed the children of the poor to receive general education for free. The teaching staff of this school also included those with national–Zionist views, such as: Y. Boris Borisovich Kumarovsky, Simcha Wolman and others, who taught at a later period and tried to instill a Jewish national spirit in the school.

Y. Schildkrauth mentions the main activists in these two societies. Dr. Y. Shapira, Y. D. Brotzky, M. Krushkin, Hana Gvirtzman, Y. Einbinder, Natan Goldstein, B. D. Kaufman, and the renowned philanthropist Moshe Milstein.

Talmud Torah was established in 1882, and was first intended for the children of the poorest strata in the Jewish population. The circumstances were to his detriment because the management, and the teachers were not at an appropriate level for an educational institution, and the level of education was also quite low. The men of Beit HaMidrash were also the gabbaim and the activists of Talmud Torah, and according to the testimony of M. Kumarovsky they were of the opinion that “the level was sufficient for the children of the poor.” It is not know if these words were said with irony, or the gabbaim of Talmud Torah really thought that poor children have to make do with a low level of education.

We learn a little about this institution from an article published in the [Hebrew Newspaper] “Ha–Melitz,” No. 660 from 1895. So writes the author of the article, Yakov Zausmer, from Akkerman:

“On March 2, election took place at the city council house for gabbaim for the Talmud Torah building in our city. During the three years, in which the elderly gabbaim served, there was a great deal of neglect in the Talmud Torah building because no one supervised the needs of the building, both material and spiritual. And this time they expressed their desire to elected many of the new generation and in our city was a kind of war in peace between the old and the young, therefore this time the elections attracted the hearts of all the residents of the city and they talked about it.”

The management, members of the younger generation, apparently introduced order in Talmud Torah and one of its achievements was – opening a course for the craft. The level of education has also risen. In 1908, Talmud Torah was released from the influence and control of the gabbaim of the Beit HaMidrash, and a new management was elected under the leadership of Y. Einbinder, Natan Goldstein, and M. Kumarovsky who instilled a new Zionist–nationalist spirit into the walls of Talmud Torah by inviting teachers like Meir Starec, Boris Borisovich Kumarovsky, and David Rebelski who was one of the activists of “Poalei Zion.” M. Kumarovsky talks at length about the teaching methods of David Rebelski, and reveals that in this method was a consideration for the child's tendencies and skills. Attention was also directed to the situation of the children's parents, whose financial situation was quite poor, and so Mr. Kumarovsky describes the activities that began in this field:

“In the past the gabbai of “Malbish Arumim” appeared with a shoemaker, pointed with his finger at certain students and ordered the shoemaker to take the measurements for new shoes in the presence of the entire class of students. We have stopped this humiliating practice. Any help, with food or clothing, was given at the child's home, and in return we received good work that was done in the class by the children.

We arranged a medical service at the school by the Dr. Feigin who volunteered for this task. When the child needed medical help – and there were too many who needed it – the child was told that his treatment was not for his illness, but to make him “healthier.” The management organized a parents committee for the school and parties at which the students performed. For many mothers from the city's back streets this was the only social gathering they were able to attend.”

Here, we can see the beginning of the social and philanthropic activity in Akkerman, and perhaps this is not a beginning, but a continuation of the activity that preceded it.

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Later, between 1919–1912, the Jewish philanthropist, Yisrael Fokkelman from Akkerman, built a spacious two–story building for the needs of Talmud Torah. After several members of the administration left the city, and there were also changes in the teaching staff, there was a decrease in the level of education and members of the Yiddishism class in the city entered the administration. The assimilated Teacher, S. Chechelnitsky, was brought from Byeramtcha, and the management was composed of those who had never been elected to this position, such as R' Yisrael Kushnir, R' Yankel Kushnir, Shabtai Imias and others. After a while, the anti–Zionist “Kultur–Lige” [“Cultural League”] took over and another spirit entered the institution.

One of the oldest welfare institutions in Akkerman was the Jewish Hospital. It was founded in 1882 and was located in one of the houses of Dr. Alexander Kogen on Izmailovsky Street. This hospital, with its two rooms (one for men and one for women), did not excel in high level medical services but, nevertheless, brought great benefit especially to the poor population of the city. The hospital's limited medical staff was headed by Dr. Y. Shapira, who devoted a lot of time to treating patients without asking for payment. The practical director of the hospital was R' Meir Greenstein, who worked day and night to meet the needs of the hospital. R' Meir Greenstein was the omnipotent ruler of the institution and the sole determinant. M. Kumarovsky wrote about him that he was more of “a slave to the institution than a landlord.” He was a tough man, but his devotion to the hospital was unquestioningly.

Another public activist, who acted with devotion and loyalty, was Yitzchak (Issac) Grinstein, and his field of operation was the Society for Aid to Poor Jews, or as it called then in Russian, “Obshcestvo pomoshchi.” He was younger than R' Meir Grinstein, used to publish annual action plans and did not shy away from public criticism.

The affairs of the cemetery and burial were in the hands of gabbaim who appointed themselves and never stood for election by the public. These gabbaim terrorized the public and their fear especially fell on the rich. They probably knew how to “skin” those who needed their help, and when one of the wealthy fell into their hands they charged his family higher burial fees (perhaps to fill in what the deceased missed while he was alive…). Their rate of burial fees could not be appealed and there were rumors in the city that the cemetery affairs were not being conducted properly. However, there was no one to check the validity of these rumors, and even if they had found such – the gabbaim would not have made the inquiry easier for them.

In 1890, a philanthropic association named, “Somech Noflim” [“Supporter of the Fallen”], was organized, and in 1898 “Kupat Gemilut Hasdim” [“Interest–Free Loan Fund”] was established. It provided assistance not only to the Jewish residents of Akkerman but also to Jews from the immediate area. Each of these two associations had a group of gabbaim who volunteered their time for these institutions.

The new Jewish hospital (covered in snow)

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About the immigration from Akkerman

As in all cities in Bessarabia, the immigration movement started to show its signs in Akkerman in the 80s and 90s of the previous century. It was caused by both economic and political reasons – the drought that befell Bessarabia, and also Ingatye's decrees on the expulsion of Jews from the villages that were at a distance of 50 versts from the border. These decrees were carried out cruelly, the Jews were expelled from their homes and their property was expropriated without prior warning. They were left homeless and without a livelihood. It is no wonder that for many Jews the decision has been made: to emigrate.

Also the 1880s pogroms in southern Russia constituted an important factor in the emigration of Jews from Akkerman, even though they did not directly affect the Jews of Bessarabia. The news about the pogroms, which were published in the press, undermined the Jews' sense of security and caused them anxiety because many thought that what happened today in other cities could happen to them the next day. The Jews sought refuge in various countries, but the main direction of immigration was: Argentina or Palestine (Eretz Yisrael). There was a real immigration in one direction – Argentina, while in the other direction – there were many plans but only a few fulfilled them.

With the foundation of The Jewish Colonization Association [JCA], and the establishment of the special committee founded by Baron Hirsch for the selection of candidates for immigration and settlement on the land in Argentina, the immigration program to Argentina gained a lot of momentum. A rumor passed in all the cities of Russia and Bessarabia: there is livelihood in Argentina. The Baron came to the aid of the suffering Jews in Russia and many began to plan their departure from Russia. The representative of the Baron, Hirsch David Feinberg, went to cities in southern Russia and began organizing groups, each with fifty families, for settlements in Argentina. In Bessarabia alone six such groups were organized, one of them in Akkerman.

R' Yakov Shmuel Trahtman, a public activist, a writer and member of the Haskalah movement who published articles about Akkerman in the press, began to conduct the negotiations between the residents who were candidates for immigration and the representative of JCA, David Feinberg. M. Kumarovsky writes that R' Yakov Shmuel Trahtman has done a lot to publicize the city of Akkerman by corresponding with the management of the Hebrew press at the time and by his frequent articles in various journals. It is possible say, that he put Akkerman on the Jewish map. He was appointed legal representative of JCA in the district of Akkerman.

The immigration program to Argentina aroused great interest in all sections of the population: merchants, shopkeepers, mediators (“mekler – sort of a new class created after the expropriation of many Jews from the villages of Bessarabia), religious personal, etc. A delegation was sent to Argentina on behalf of the candidates for this immigration and it was headed by M. Berkowitz, a wise man with experience in agriculture. He examined the situation and conditions at the place designated for Jewish settlement and passed his findings to Baron Hirsch. His report was also published in his series of articles in “Ha–Melitz.” In the report he states, that in order for the settlement to be successful it must be based on a broad footprint and provide a reasonable opportunity for the settlers to adapt (according to M. Kumarovsky, Berkowitz was interviewed by Baron Hirsch himself).

The first immigrants left Akkerman for Argentina in the years 1894–1895, and they established the village, “Primero de Maya,” which was also known as “Moshavat Akkerman.” M. Kumarovsky describes the beginning of the immigration from Akkerman to Argentina in these words:

“The writer of these columns remembers the separation of the immigrants from the residents of Akkerman. Dark skies with unfriendly clouds hung over their heads. Many Jews came to the synagogue for the last “Shacarit” prayer. The visit to the cemetery (to say goodbye to the deceased) passed in silence. After that, several carts, which drove the immigrants and their escorts, began to move. After a drive of a few kilometers the caravan stopped in a field to eat the last meal together. They drank a lot of wine, the thick–bearded men were hoarse and happy and the eyes of many shed tears of excitement.”

After the immigrants arrived in Argentina, and settled on the land made available to them, letters from Argentina began to reach Akkerman. Most of them were full of satisfaction and personal fulfillment of the new settlers in the Argentine “Pampa.” Yakov Shmuel Trahtman, the representative of JCA in Akkerman, published in journals excerpts of the letters he received from Yitzchak Hakham, Hochman, Weinstein, David the ritual slaughterer, Yakov Yakobzan, Zev Sheinberg and others. From them we learn that the immigrants were satisfied with everything they foundat the place of their settlement. So, for example, writes Yakov Yakobzan: “When I get out of my bed in the morning and my eyes wander over the square, I see that everything is mine: the house, the field, the animal, the tools, the chickens, and I lie in my bed in the evening and I know that my bread, water and needs are ready for me and my family, and on the next day I will not have to run through the streets and ask for food for my family – I sleep well and I bless God.” In another letter it says according to Y. S. Trahtman: “We arrived safely and we found homes, bulls, horses etc. The settlement is full of charm, the soil is fertile, the air is fresh and healthy, it is close to the railway, a stream of water flows and passes through our boundaries and there are good living fish. In one word: we are happy! “

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No wonder that these “joyous news” of the “colonists” from Akkerman in Argentina spread quickly in the Jewish public and many were getting ready to follow in their footsteps. But it soon became clear to the settlers that happiness was far from them and in letters that arrived shortly afterwards completely different “songs” have been heard: lamentations and weeping for the bitter faith, about the attitude of Baron Hirsch's officials toward the settlers, the lack of working capital, lack experience, unbearable distress and suffering. It can be said to the credit of Y. S. Trahtman, that he also published a few of these letters for the public knowledge. And so we found in “Ha–Melitz” No. 232 from 5656, Tuesday Parochet “Ki Thabo”: “We received your letter, you order us to “to live quietly and peacefully and not to arouse an argument.” As you know, we are all peaceful people – – – the officials stopped giving the farmers tools to work the land, the clerical house did not give us any help for sacred buildings such as a synagogue, a bathhouse with a mikveh, etc. “They have no business dealing with such things”– – – and what will we do if all the Jews of Russia are despicable and worthless in the eyes of these great masters, the Jews of France? As if we are not the sons of one father! Please do not forget us! We are your flock and you are our shepherd!”

The writer of this letter was a settler from Akkerman and Mr. Trahtman only reveals the initials of his name and surname: P.A.

In the letter signed by P.A. it is said among others: “To this day we have hoped that the difficult and bad terms of the contract will be replaced by others, but now we have realized our hope is in vain, everything is absurdity, and there is no escape – – – we are confused in a country not ours. We fell into the hands of hard masters – – – we were sold into slaves and we, our sons and our offspring to the end of all generations, will be, God forbid, enslaved for eternity.”

There is no point in continuing with this letter since it is well known what happened to this settlement. The author, Alperson, describes the suffering of the colonists in his important book, “Thirty Years of Jewish Settlement in Argentina.” The Jews of Akkerman were not the only ones to suffer. A long time has not passed and the settlers of “Primero de Maya” left the “Garden of Eden,” scattered all over Argentina, every person turned his own way, to peddling, small trade, etc. In this way came the end of the new and productive dream of life that many of Akkerman's Jews had dreamed.

An old house in Akkerman

On the shore of the Leman River

The fortress kisses the Leman River

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The beginning of the immigration to Eretz Yisrael and “Hibbat Zion”

Y. Klausner tells in the “Encyclopedia of the Diaspora” about the beginning of the immigration to Eretz Yisrael from Akkerman:

“An association was established in Akkerman and fifty families registered in it. Among the registered members were many who were used to physical work. Most of the members had their own means. The association sent delegates to Constantinople, to Sir Laurence Oliphant. In 1880 he published his book, “Eretz HaGilad,” in which he recommended the settlement of Jews in eastern Eretz Yisrael and actively supported the movement for the settlement of the country. In the spring of 1882, he visited Romania – Iasi and Bucharest – and from there traveled to Constantinople to seek a permit to settle Jews in Syria and Israel. Many Jews in Russia and Romania expected his help since they saw him as a wealthy and influential man.”

In another place it is told about two emissaries, Y. Zusman and Eliyahu Steinberg, who left from Akkerman to Eretz Yisrael. They studied the conditions in the place, then met with Sir Laurence Oliphant and found out that his influence on the Turkish authorities was very limited, and he also has no means to assist the settlement of Jews in Syria and Eretz Yisrael. Therefore, they returned to Akkerman and reported their impressions and conclusions to the first members of “Hovevei Zion,” who were getting ready to immigrate to Eretz. And so the plan to immigrate fifty Jews from Akkerman to Eretz Yisrael in the late 19th century was shelved.

From various articles published in the press, especially in “Ha–Melitz,” we learn that a rather small circle of “Hovevei Zion” was active in Akkerman. The circle attracted followers for the idea of “Hibbat Zion” and also raised funds for the settlement of Eretz Yisrael. So, for example, was published in issue No. 176 of “Ha–Melitz” at the end of 5642: “Yehiel Treistman informs us from Akkerman that according to the annual account brought by “Hovevei Zion,” a total of 466 ruble was collected in this city during the year, and in this account not a single name of a rich man, who contributed to the benefit of the workers in the Holy Land, is mentioned or counted”(quoted from Schildkrauth's book).

We find more detailed information in issue No. 766 of the same newspaper from 1894: Y.S. Trahtman, the reporter from Akkerman writes: “All for what reason? For what? That there was not a single person out of many in the entire city who challenged and dealt with this issue. The throats of famous preachers–talkers dried up in vain, our masters Massliansky, Korotkin and Yevazrav, who were here, preached, investigated, shouted and protested. Each of the listeners listened intently to their warm words which came from the heart and which, according to the commonsense, entered the heart. When they left the sanctuary for the daily life – each Jew turned to his business and trade.” There is, of course, nothing in these words to compliment the Jews of Akkerman, but the bitter pill is sweetened by the final section of the same article: “Last year, the enlightened young man, Mr. Zelik Bayokansky, settled here. He is a Hovev Zion and a lobbyist, and he aroused the sleepers. He troubled himself, labored and toiled, gathered the people for a meeting and slowly slowly there was a movement in our city regarding the settlement.”

We could not find a continuation to the activity of the “enlightened young man,” Zelik Bayokansky, in “Ha–Melitz,” but we know about the organization of “Hovevei Zion” in Akkerman that one of its activists was Leib Sharira.

In light of the ban during the reign of the Tsar to hold Zionist activities, the activities of “Hovevei Zion” concentrated in small circles and the meetings were held in private homes under the guise of family events, discussions on literary issues, etc. Apparently, these circles were composed mainly of members of the affluent class of Akkerman Jewry, but did not reach the wider middle class. Within “Hovevei Zion” was also an active group of young people who called themselves “Bnei Zion.” Later, an “opposition” also appeared in the framework of the youth circle. These were young people did not find satisfaction in the limited action of the association and saw it as “stepping in place.” They sought greatness, were interested in the liberation movements of other nations and in practical Zionism. Eventually they left the association and formed a new Zionist association called “Ohavei Zion.” Among the activists within this association were Akivah Margolin and Binyamin Crossman. In the passage of time they immigrated to the United States and were active in the establishment of the Society of Emigrants from Akkerman in America.

The young circle grew and was later joined by: M. Kumarovsky, Meir Starec, Zise Gladstein, Ben–Zion Garin, Aharon Serper, Shmuel Gilbord, Yakov Icht, Rivkin and others. The Zionist leader, M. Sheinkin, who visited Akkerman several times, assisted in the development of this circle from an organizational and conceptual point of view. It is known about conceptual seminars organized by the circle and about lecturers specially invited to them, such as: Nowakowsky, Chemerinsky (who was known by his literary name R' Mordechai'le) and others. After a while, two groups of Zionist students were also established: “Ezra” and “Kadima,” the Zionist activity branched out in their wake and received a new turning point. One of the activities in the “Ezra” group was Zina Helman.

There is no doubt, that at that time the Zionist activity in Akkerman was influenced by the activities in Odessa. Evidence of this were also the names of the various associations that emerged in the city and their names were similar to the names of the associations in the great and close by Odessa: “Nes Ziona,” “HaShachar,” “HaTehiya,” etc.

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A group of “Agudat Ohavay Zion in Akkerman,” 1904 First row on top, right to left: unknown, Bronstein, Meir Starec, Reuven Shtulman, Zise Gladstein (picture of Dr. Leon Pinsker) Second row: Yakov Haskin, unknown Third row: Bernard Krausman, Mendel Kumarovsky, Ben–Zion Garin, Leibish Krasner Fourth row: Aharon Serper, Shmuel Gilburd, Yitzchak Selinger, unknown, Meir Sviadush, Moshe Marinyansky Fifth row: Akivah Margolin Sixth row: Morris Gavshevits, Y. Kriper, unknown, Eli–Hersh Kriper, unknown

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The groups' practical activity was reflected in the sale of the Jewish National Fund stamps, Zionist Shekel, signing for shares in the “Jewish Colonial Trust,” standing by the bowls placed in the synagogues on holidays, collecting donations at weddings, bar mitzvahs and all sorts of other occasions. This activity improved the Zionists' prestige in Akkerman in the eyes of the main Zionist institutions, and all the Zionist conferences and conventions held in the major cities were attended by delegates from Akkerman. Akkerman delegations also attended Zionist conventions held away from Akkerman. So, for example, Meir Starec participated in the conference of Russian Zionists in preparation for the Second Zionist Congress held in Warsaw in 1898. He was also one of the ten delegates from Bessarabia who attended the Second Congress. A delegate from Akkerman attended the Russian Zionist Conference in Minsk in 5662. In the same year stamps were sold for the amount of 73 ruble.

In 1899–1900, Dr. S. Bandersky, a native of Kishinev who studied medicine in Odessa, worked in the region of Bessarabia and also in Wolyn, Russia, on behalf of the Zionist administration. When he completed his studies he moved to Zionist activity in Bessarabia and Akkerman was included in his field of activity. At a district conference held in Bandar on 4–5 July 1900, at the initiative of Bandersky, two delegates from Akkerman (Helfend and Prelis) also participated and in a report they gave in this conference they told about the activity for the teaching of the Hebrew language, courses on Jewish history and literature, and evening classes. This report made a good impression on the delegates and, among others, it was decided that every association should strive to establish a “theoretical association” such as the one established in Akkerman (as told in Y. Klausner article in the volume dedicated to Bessarabia in the “Encyclopedia of the Diaspora,”).

Delegates from Akkerman attended the regional conference held in Kamianets–Podilskyi in 1901. At this conference those responsible for activities in the districts were elected and Sheinkin was appointed as the person in charge of the Akkerman district.

The Uganda Scheme divided the Zionists in Akkerman to those who said yes and those who said no. the representatives of five Zionists association (“Bnei Zion,” “Ohavay Zion, “Ezra,” and “Poalei Zion”) gathered in Akkerman for a discussion on the Uganda Scheme, and after arguments that lasted more than eight hours a decision has been made against the authorized authority in Kharkiv (members of the Zionist General Council gathered at the home of Dr. Berenstein–Cohen and voted against the Uganda Scheme). The participants in the above discussion in Akkerman expressed their sorrow at the split in the Zionist movement, and claimed that the members of the Zionist General Council should have asked the Zionist associations for information on this important issue before making their decision.

In the summer of 1905, we find in Akkerman two factions of “Poalei Zion”: the Jewish Territorial Organization with 60–70 members, and the Palestinians, or as they called themselves “Zionei Zion,” with 40–50 members. The Palestinian faction of “Poalei Zion” established the “Palestinian workers' fund for laborers and clerks.”

Meir Starec from Akkerman participated in the 1906 Zionist conference in Hälsingborg Finland.

In 1910–1914, the Zionists in the city continued their regular activities, but it is known that in 1910 the government arrested six Zionists for the sale of Jewish National Fund's stamps which was prohibited by law. They were exiled to the Kherson region for two years. The names of the imprisoned: Gelman, Icht, Kanterovitch, Kumarovsky, Lis and Rivkin. The Zionist activity weakened, but in 1912 it resumed with a certain momentum and in camouflage. The seal of the “Society for the Promotion of Culture” in St. Petersburg served as a cover for any Zionist meeting.

Yehoshua Harari z”l told, that when his brother, Yakov Berger, returned from his academic studies in St. Petersburg, he joined the Zionist activities and even tried concentrate it with the intention of uniting the various factions and groups in order to strengthen the Zionist movement in the city. One of the factions was a group of workers who was under the influence of “Poalei Zion” and concentrated at the Craftsmen Synagogue. Among the activists of this group was also Leib Stambul who was influenced at the time by Borochov's lectures in Akkerman. In this group of “Poalei Zion” there were other activists whose names I don't remember.

After negotiations, this group joined the Zionist activity in the city. At the same time, Zionist propaganda also gained some momentum despite all the prohibitions and restrictions of the authorities, but at the outbreak of the World War it was also silenced.

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The 1905 pogrom

The year 1904–1905 was, as is well known, a year of great calamity in Russia. Russia's defeat in the war with Japan undermined the foundations of the Tsarist regime and in its wake began a wild incitement against the Jews. It was conducted by the Russian People's Council (“Soyuz Ruskov Naroda”), which was called by the people the “Black Hundred” (“Chornaya Sotnya”). An atmosphere of pogroms hovered in the air and in the articles of M. Kumarovsky, which are published in this book, there an expression to this atmosphere and also a description of the events.

The pogrom arrived “late” in Akkerman by a few days and, as we know, the Kishinev pogrom preceded it. Akkerman's turn came after the region minister was forced to telegraph from St. Petersburg to end the pogrom in Kishinev. Akkerman's anti–Semite mayor, and the head of the church in the city, apparently envied the rioters of Kishinev and began to encourage the peasants to take revenge on the Jews. They interpreted the order of the region minister to stop the pogroms on the Jews as an only attack in Kishinev…

The self–defense, which was organized in the city in advance, concentrated about two hundred people: salesmen, laborers, high school students, and merchants. Its initiators were the Zionist circles in the city headed by Yeshayahu Brudsky, and the converted physician, M. B. Shar, whose heart was touched by the fate of his people.

The members of the liberal circles in the city, among them the Attorney General, the Justice of the Peace, the notary and several members of the city council – were unable to help: to withstand the growing stream of instigators and rioters. However, it should be noted, that there were some Christians who hid Jews in their homes and some of them even took to the streets and tried to calm the turbulent spirits.

Many Jews fled to nearby fields and gardens for fear of the rioters and quite a few were beaten by the farmers and their property was looted.

The pogrom amounted to seven dead, many were wounded, many shops went up in flames, 388 families were left destitute, and the general damage estimate – 960 thousand rubles. The murdered were: Michel Sternberg, Leib Fishman, Fania Steinberg, Leizer Wolman, Sioma Grinstein, Yisrael Buganov, Efrat and also an unknown Jew who was brought from the village of Kazatza. Six Torah scrolls desecrated by the rioters were also buried near the mass grave. These lines were engraved on a black marble tombstone:

Stand here a human being and open the source of your eyes
and if your heart is stone – it will melt into water at the sight of this mound
beneath it found rest six Torah scrolls and eight martyrs.
They died unlike any other person.
They were murdered at the prime of their lives by cruel rioters
who looted our property, sent fire to our homes,
and in the synagogues they tore up Torah scrolls and desecrated them,
they killed eight pure souls with severe torture
on the bitter day, 7 Marcheshvan 5666.
Here this mound is a witness, this tombstone is a witness, that the shame of
our nation will not be forgotten until the malicious… ^[1] moves out of the country.

After the pogrom a special commission of inquiry, headed by Dr. Leo Motzkin, was set up in Berlin. The duties of the committee were: investigation of the events, collection of documents and evidence from the victims. For this purpose, special emissaries were also sent to visit all the cities where pogroms took place. The writer, Avraham Ludvipol, who stayed in the city for two weeks, gathered all the information on the victims, stolen property as well as photographs, documents, etc.

A group of Zionist teachers in Talmud Torah

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The new Talmud Torah building

A group of teachers and board members of Talmud Torah, 1908 Seating right to left: Mendel Kumarovsky, Meir Starec, N. Zenkler, David Rabelski, Nathan Goldstein, Yisrael Einbinder. In the middle – the shamash Moshe

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The Jewish community of Akkerman

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, new winds began to blow in the country and many hopes also arose among all members of the national minorities who were looking for ways and forms to express their nationality. The depression that prevailed in all sections of the population after the war, the ruined economy, the mourning for the many victims, etc., slowly subsided and the Jews began to plan their lives according to the new regime and diffrent circumstances. With the secession of Bessarabia from Russia and its annexation to Romania in 1918, the economic distress increased and the two main philanthropic societies we talked about in the previous chapter, ceased their activities. Also the JCA Company, whose center was in St. Petersburg, stopped its aid operations. Akkerman was also cut off from Odessa, which served as an important economic and cultural center for the Jews of Bessarabia, and the city's Jews remained alone. Apparently, all these circumstances aroused the hidden forces in the Jews of this city and they began to understand the meaning of the ancient verse – “If I am not for myself, who will be for me?” They awoke from their stagnation and reliance on others and started to organize their public lives at all levels.

At the end of 1917, the Jewish community was established and its main forces came from the Zionists' ranks. Even the intelligentsia in the city, those “Russophiles” who saw the solution to the problems of the Jews with rapid Russification, who snuggled up on Russian culture and “Mother Russia” – sobered up from their dreams. In view of the Romanization imposed on the inhabitants by the new regime, and the means of repression taken by the new rulers, they had no choice but to approach the national Jewish camp and quite a few of them began to be active in the national institutions.

It is not to be understood from that that the path of the Zionists, who aspired the democratization of the Jewish community and to grant a prominent national identity to all institutions, received the support and sympathy of all. They had to struggle with three factors: the assimilated intelligentsia, the anti–Zionist camp (such as “Kultur Lige”) and the religious public that concentrated around Beit HaMidrash. The struggle was not easy, but thanks to several dedicated leaders and the stubborn spirit of the Zionist camp, the Zionists managed to reach a dominant status in almost all the community institutions, direct them to constructive activity and prevent the takeover of the gabbaim and activists who acted on their own and did not receive the authority of the general public.

The first chairman of the community, who was elected in the free and democratic elections by the community council, was Dr. Yitzchak Shapira. After him served in this position according to turn: Hana Gvirtzman, Nathan Goldstein, and Moshe Milstein who was also known as the “benefactor” of the Jews of Akkerman. All of them served one or two terms and only the accomplished Zionist, Moshe Helman, served in this position for many years and initiated many activities for the benefit of the Jewish public in the city. He was liked by the Jews of Akkerman thanks to his good temper, boundless devotion to public affairs and the community institutions, and his personal honesty. All of this led to him to being repeatedly elected to the position of chairman of the community. His deputy was Yakov Berger, the gymnasium principal. For a certain time Yitzchak Feldstein served in the duty of deputy of head of the community.

Y. Schildkrauth writes in his book about the image of the community:

”The community in Akkerman was national–democratic, a matter that even Jewish Kishinev did not achieve. The representatives of the “Yiddishe Kultur Lige” in the city greatly helped in the struggle for a democratic community and its leaders were: the talented Y. Kogen, Yeshayahu Brudski, Akivah Kogen, H. Karolik and others. In contrast, we had to fight a lot with the “Yiddishe Kultur Lige” when we shaped the national image of the community.”

It is worth noting, that other communities in Bessarabia shaped the procedure and practice in their communities according to the wording of the bylaws of the Jewish community of Akkerman. The community council was elected in a free and democratic election and each party, faction or group of members, was allowed to submit its own list and conduct an outreach campaign ahead of the elections. In the deployment of the community elections, information meetings were held on behalf of the factions and parties according to all the rules of democracy.

The first elected Jewish community was faced with difficult and embarrassing problems. It had to create something out of nothing while its coffers were empty. The Romanian government exchanged the currency of that times (the Russian ruble) for the Romanian leu, and even these exchanges caused many problems that this is not the place to detail them. The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee [JDC], which provided material assistance to Jewish communities that were dwindled after the war, came to their aid. A delegation on behalf of the JDC, led by Baruch Zuckerman, one of the leaders of “Poalei Zion” in America, visited many Jewish communities to clarify the most urgent needs. The Jews in the district of Akkerman received aid in the amount of 420,367 leu. It was a kind of a shot of encouragement that did not have the power to rebuild the ruins, but contributed a lot to the restoration of the Jewish life after the First World War.

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The committee for aid to the victims of hunger Seating first row from the right: S. Egul, Yosef Serper, Dr. Y. Feldstein, Moshe Milstein, Moshe Helman, Dr. A. Schwartzman, Y. Berger, M. Sharira Standing second row: L. Risenzan, Dr. S. Zerling, Dara Goldman, Musi Gvirtzman, Y. Einbinder, Nathan Goldstein, Dr. M. Kruskin, Felik Berg Standing third row: Nachman Smulbard, Yisrael Gurfil, Alexander Shapira, David Brand, M. Edlis, Mendel Gelman (slaughterer), Hana Karolik

Even before the first community council was able to stand on its own feet it was faced with a very serious problem – the necessity of providing aid to Ukrainian refugee, Jews who flocked to the border cities near the Dniester, Akkerman among them.

As we know, at the end of the First World War there was complete disorder and confusion in Russia which left its marks on all orders of life. Generals and various armed groups got organized and waged wars among themselves, and also with the Red Army which had not yet been properly organized. And this is how they acted on the ground: the soldiers of the “Reds,” the companies of the “whites,” and “Bat'ko Makhno” and Petliura gangs, consumed their anger, first and foremost, on the Jews who were subjected to plunder and looting. The Jews of Ukraine suffered and many fled for their lives, with a considerable number of refugees flowing in the direction of the Dniester and the settlements near its shores. Quite a few were blackmailed by all sorts of “smugglers,” and there were also those who drowned in the waters of the frozen Leman after the thin layer of ice cracked, or shot by Russian or Romanian border guards.

When the first refugees arrived in Akkerman the Jewish public came to their aid. This was not the first time that the Jews of Akkerman have shown their willingness to come to the aid of their brothers. In “Ha–Melitz” No. 121 from the month of Sivan 5655, we read an article signed by “Ish Yavne” and in it is says among others: “I am glad to announce in the front page of “Ha–Melitz” that the fate of the burned Brest community also touched the hearts of our townspeople. During the holiday of Shavuot they read for shekalim, for the benefit of those who were burned, during the reading the Torah in Beit HaMidrash, the Great Synagogue and in the small House of Prayer. And the sum of the alms came to one hundred and sixty–seven rubles. On 22 May, they conducted a party in the amusement park in our city and the

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income was three hundred and seventy five rubles. Our townspeople are happy that they can help the unfortunate with a sum of more in five hundred rubles, and the leaders of our community have not yet finished” (quoted from Schildkrauth's book). Indeed, these sums, even at the rate of those days, were not large, but in light of the limited possibilities of the Jewish residents it can certainly be seen as a serious contribution.

Now, in the face of the wave of refugees from the Ukraine the community mobilized its best forces. The council elected a special refugee committee (as it was in other cities in Bessarabia) and it began collecting donations from the city's residents. In addition to the money received for this purpose from the JDC and former residents of Akkerman in the United States, this committee already had, more or less, sufficient means at its disposal to provide the many refugees with shelter, food and clothing. The committee also made sure to provide the refugees with documents that would protect them from the persecution of the anti–Semitic Romanian officials.

To the credit of the Jewish community, we must also write about the vigorous activity during the drought years that befell Bessarabia in 1925–26, 1928–29 and 1935–1936. The drought, and the economic crisis that plagued many countries in those years, led to the collapse of businesses and severe hardship within the Jewish population. Hundreds of Jewish families fell upon hard times and did not even have a piece of bread to eat. Those who were able to give in the past now received help from the community's hunger committee. The sociologist, Yakov Lestschinsky, describes the economic situation in Akkerman in the chapter on the economic life in Bessarabia in “Encyclopedia of the Diaspora”:

“No less than 200 of the 1000 (Jewish) families in Akkerman are suffering because of the nagging hunger. The local committee handles the collection of donations from among the residents of the city in addition to the amounts it receives from the JDC. In November–December 1929, it spent nearly two thousand dollars on distribution of free bread, potatoes and firewood and even cash. If they had stopped the distribution of bread and potatoes – which was possible – 1000 Jewish people would have remained hungry for bread and expected to starve to death on the city streets.”

In the newspaper “Unzer Tsayt” from 10.5.1929, there is also an article signed by the newspaper reporter in Akkerman, Y. Schildkrauth, about the help given by the Jewish community to needy Jews in Akkerman towards the holiday of Passover.

“The amount of help distributed (to the needy) reached in the month of Pesach to 650,000 leu. On this amount 300,000 leu were received from the central hunger committee, 100,000 leu from the Akkermanim committee in New–York, and 30,000 leu from the philanthropist, the opera singer Maxsim Karalik. The rest of the money (220,000 leu) was collated this month in the city itself. Of the above amount, grants were distributed to more than 15 small Jewish settlements in the Akkerman district in the total amount of 100,000 leu”…. “In addition to that, thanks to the efforts of the director of the Moldova Bank branch, A. Sirotin, 1,000 kilograms of sugar were received and distributed among Jewish institutions that care for the poor population in Akkerman.”

The community committee set up kitchens for poor children near “Tarbut” school and “Talmud Torah” and gave them free lunch. A special soup kitchen was also opened and free lunches were distributed to needy families. The management of these kitchens was in the hands of women who volunteered for this duty.

In another report from 11.12.1928, Y. Schildkrauth tells in “Unzer Tsayt”:

“Thanks to the intervention of S. Trahtman (member of the JCA company in Bessarabia), the local women's committee, which runs the free kitchen for the children of “Talmud Torah,” received a subsidy from the JCA at the amount of 180,000 leu – 30,000 leu per month for six months.”

The Jewish community of Akkerman actively participated in all kinds of activities with other communities in Bessarabia. Its representatives attended various national and regional conventions. On July 1930, an all– Romanian conference of the representatives of the Jewish communities was held in Bucharest. Its task was to organize the Jewish communities in Romania and also to protest against the attack of the Romanian authorities on the activities of the communities and the wave of anti–Semitism that befell the country. Akkerman was represented at this conference by the community chairman, M. Helman. A few days before this conference a delegation consisting of the chairman of the Kishinev community the lawyer Karl Steinberg, the chairman of the community of Akkerman M. Helman, and also the community of Artsyz, appeared before the authorities to demand a reinforcements to protect the Jews of Artsyz who suffered from the anti–Semitism of the Germans living in the town. According to the testimony of Y. Vinizky, the authorities responded to the representatives' request, reinforcements were sent and the Jews of Artsyz breathed a sigh of relief.

In 1935, the first all–Bessarabia conference was held in Kishinev with the participation of a delegation from Akkerman that included Moshe Helman, Yosef Serper, Yeshayahu Brudsky, Sirotin and Yaroslavsky. The discussion at this conference revolved around the famine that befell southern Bessarabia and the anti–Semitic threats against the residents of the area.

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At this conference it was decided to contact all the Jews in the region and require them to extend assistance to the casualties whose number was about 50,000. A special committee for the urgent needs was also elected and Moshe Helman and Yeshayahu Brudsky from Akkerman participated in it.

In the Second Bessarabian conference, which was called for 3.5.1936, HaRav Moshe Zukerman, Yakov Berger, Moshe Helman, Yosef Serper and L. Trachtenbroit represented the community of Akkerman. This conference discusses, among others, the amendments that must be included in the regulations of the Jewish communities in connection with their activities for Eretz Yisrael. At this conference sharp disagreements arose with representatives of the “Kultur–Lige” who, of course, objected to the proposed amendments. But thanks to the vigorous position of the Zionist representatives and Akkerman's representatives, the proposed amendments were accepted. Moshe Helman was re–elected to the General Committee.

We have given only a few examples of the community activity in the field of representation, but we can also learn from these few examples that the community of Akkerman was involved in all Jewish public activity in Bessarabia and Romania.

A chapter in itself is the Jewish activity in the general elections in the country, the municipal elections, etc. This activity had already begun in the run–up to the elections for the all–Russian constituent assembly scheduled for November 11–13, 1917. The Jews mobilized to support a list headed by Nahum Rafaleks (Nir), Avraham Ravutski (Akkerman native who lived at that time in Odessa. It would be told about him separately), and Shlomo Goldman.

The Jewish community also took an active part in the elections for the city council. This activity began in 1917 with the declaration of the Russian Revolutionary Government on the freedom of all nationalities to elect their representatives to municipal institutions. With the active support of the Zionist bloc, Jewish representatives were elected to the municipal council. However, these city councils were dissolved by the Romanians when they entered the region of Bessarabia in March 1918 and administrative bodies were appointed in their place.

In the years 1925–26, the Jewish communities, especially the Zionist bloc, revolted against the admission of Jewish representatives to the local municipalities. The Jewish vote was of considerable importance in these elections and it is no wonder that all the Christian parties also competed for this vote. After negotiations the Jews entered into an agreement with the Democratic Christian Party (National–Cernists). This list won the elections held in 1926, and many Jews entered the municipal councils in Bessarabia, including Akkerman.

It was not long before the Jews were disappointed with the Christian allies and the possibility of sincere cooperation with them. Therefore, independent Jewish lists had already appeared in the municipal elections on March 14, 1930. Municipal Jews had already entered the municipal councils in lists of Jews who defended Jewish interests without any dependence on Christian parties.

In the Romanian parliamentary elections, the Jews of Akkerman supported the independent Jewish list headed by Y. Lerner (Yaron) of Tarutino (his actions will be told separately in the Tarutino section in this book. The other candidates on this list were: Munis Wellman, Yitzchak Feldstein (Akkerman), Nachum Sirota, Nachman Stolberg (Akkerman), Moshe Shohat and Issac Shapira (Akkerman). The chairman of the community of Akkerman, Moshe Helman, appeared at the head of the least in the district of Izmail.

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